Psychology: An Introduction PDF

Benjamin B. Lahey Lahey Psychology www.mhhe...

Benjamin B. Lahey Lahey Psychology www.mhhe.com/lahey11e MD DALIM #1137321 03/29/10 CYAN MAG YELO BLK an IntroductIon ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6 MHID 0-07-803516-3 90000 9 780078 035166 www.mhhe.com Psychology an IntroductIon  Rev.confirming Pages APA UNDERGRADUATE LEARNING GOALS AND OUTCOMES PSYCHOLOGY CONTENT 3 CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN PSYCHOLOGY Respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solving problems related to behavior and mental processes. 3.1 Use critical thinking effectively. Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3 Thinking Critically about Psychology, 3.2 Engage in creative thinking. p. 4, 13, and 19 3.3 Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize Ch 2: Basic Concepts of Research, p. 25-7; Thinking Critically about arguments and other persuasive appeals. Psychology, p. 40 and 43 3.4 Approach problems effectively. Ch 3: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 55, 61, 76, and 81 Ch 4: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 98, 101, 104, 110, and 116 Ch 5: Thinking Critically about Psychology, p. 124, 132, 136, 144, 147, and 157 Ch 6: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 166, 177, 181, and 188 Ch 7: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 203, 214, 217, and 225 Ch 8: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 243, 251, and 256 Ch 9: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 269, 277, 282, and 298; Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals, p. 269-76; Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition, p. 282-94 Ch 10: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 310, 315, 325, 330, and 339; Adolescent Development, p. 325-9 Ch 11: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 357, 366, 375, 385, and 389 Ch 12: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 400, 410, 414, 418, and 422 Ch 13: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 436, 443, 447, and 454 Ch 14: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 465, 475, 487, 492, and 495 Ch 15: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 505, 508, 515, and 522 Ch 16: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 537, 548, 551, and 559; Groups and Social Influence, p. 527-36; Attitudes and Persuasion, p. 538-46 Ch 17: Thinking Critically about Psychology p. 571, 587, 592, and 596 4 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY Understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues. 4.1 Describe major applied areas of psychology (e.g., clinical, counsel- Ch 1: Goals of Psychology, p. 3; Contemporary Perspectives and ing, industrial/organizational, school, health). Specialty Areas in Psychology, p. 13-18; What We Know about Human 4.2 Identify appropriate applications of psychology in solving problems. Behavior: Some Starting Places, p. 19-21 4.3 Articulate how psychological principles can be used to explain Ch 2: Application of Psychology, p. 44-5 social issues and inform public policy. Ch 3: Application of Psychology, p. 82-5 4.4 Apply psychological concepts, theories, and research findings as Ch 4: Application of Psychology, p. 117 these relate to everyday life. Ch 6: Application of Psychology, p. 189-91 4.5 Recognize that ethically complex situations can develop in the Ch 7: Theoretical Interpretations of Learning, p. 217-24; Application application of psychological principles. of Psychology, p. 226 Ch 8: Application of Psychology, p. 257-61 Ch 9: Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals, p. 269-276; Application of Psychology, p. 299-301 Ch 10: Application of Psychology, p. 341-4 Ch 11: Application of Psychology, p. 390-1 Ch 12: Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person, p. 419-21 Ch 13: Coping With Stress, p. 444-447; Changing Health-Related Behavior Problems, p. 448-51; Human Diversity: Psychology and Women’s Health, p. 451-4; Application of Psychology, p. 455-6 Ch 14: Definition of Abnormal Behavior, p. 459-64; Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual Health, p. 492-4 Ch 15: Psychoanalysis, p. 500-504; Humanistic Psychotherapy, p. 505-7; Cognitive Behavior Therapy, p. 508-14; Group and Family Therapy, p. 515-6; Medical Therapies, p. 518-21; Application of Psychology, p. 523-4 Ch 17: Applied Fields of Psychology, p. 563; Psychology and Work, p. 571-86; Psychology and Law, p. 587-91; Psychology and Education, p. 592-5 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd i 26/04/11 6:24 PM lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd ii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Rev.confirming Pages eleventh edition Psychology An Introduction Benjamin B. Lahey University of Chicago TM lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd iii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  TM PSYCHOLOGY, 11E Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 978-0-07-803516-6 MHID: 0-07-803516-3 Vice President and Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan Director of Development: Dawn Groundwater Senior Development Editor: Cara Labell Development Editor: Maureen Spada Publisher: Michael Sugarman Sponsoring Editor: Allison McNamara Marketing Manager: Julia Flohr Editorial Coordinator: Sarah Kiefer Senior Production Editor: Mel Valentiń Cover Designer: Cadence Design Interior Designer: Cadence Design Lead Photo Research Coordinator: Natalia Peschiera Photo Researcher: Jennifer Blankenship Art Editor: Ayelet Arbel Media Project Manager: Jennifer Barrick Buyer II: Tandra Jorgensen Composition: Laserwords Private Limited Printing: RR Donnelly Cover image: © Yin dongxun/Xinhua Press/Corbis Because this page cannot legibly accommodate all acknowledgements for copyrighted material, credits appear at the end of the book, and constitute an extension of this copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lahey, Benjamin B. Psychology : an introduction / Benjamin Lahey.—11th ed. p. cm. Summary: “A contemporary take on a time tested classic. Students will master the central concepts of psychology with the new 11th edition of Psychology from Benjamin Lahey. The 11th edition has been thoroughly updated to include the latest research with an emphasis on Chapters 6 (Consciousness), 10 (Development) 14 (Abnormal) and 16 (Social Psychology). Lahey weaves scholarship based on empirical research throughout the text, ensuring an accurate portrait of contemporary psychology. The text’s student-friendly writing, clear chapter openers, and fresh applications make the material more rele- vant to students than ever before, and the proven learning system ensures that all students will grasp the concepts presented in the book. Lahey’s hallmark emphasis on diversity and culture remains integrated throughout the text, making this the text for a well rounded introduction to all areas of psychology”— Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-803516-6 (pbk. : acid-free paper) 1. Psychology—Textbooks. I. Title. BF121.L214 2011 150—dc22 2011016237 www.mhhe.com lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd iv 29/04/11 10:21 AM  Rev.confirming Pages For Megan, Ted, Erin, Clare, Eamonn, Riley, Hannah, Miller, Mollie, and Kate. lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd v 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Brief Contents Preface xvii Content Changes xxiii Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv part one Introduction and Foundations chapter one Introduction to Psychology 1 chapter two Research Methods in Psychology 24 chapter three Biological Foundations of Behavior 47 chapter four Interplay of Nature and Nurture 90 part two Awareness chapter five Sensation and Perception 120 chapter six States of Consciousness 162 part three Learning and Cognition chapter seven Basic Principles of Learning 193 chapter eight Memory 228 chapter nine Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 263 part four Developmental Psychology chapter ten Developmental Psychology 303 part five The Self chapter eleven Motivation and Emotion 349 chapter twelve Personality 394 part six Health and Adjustment chapter thirteen Stress and Health 424 chapter fourteen Abnormal Behavior 458 chapter fifteen Therapies 497 part seven Social Context chapter sixteen Social Psychology 526 chapter seventeen Psychology Applied to the Environment and to Professions 561 Glosssary G-2 References R-2 Credits C-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-2 vi lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd vi 28/04/11 4:11 PM  Rev.confirming Pages Contents Preface xvii Basic and Applied Areas in Modern Psychology 16 Content Changes xxiii Basic Areas of Modern Psychology 17 Applied Areas of Modern Psychology 17 Before You Begin: Study Skills for Success xxv Relationship between Psychology and Psychiatry 18 What We Know about Human Behavior: part one Some Starting Places 19 Introduction SUMMARY 21 VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 23 and Foundations chapter two chapter one Research Methods Introduction to Psychology 1 in Psychology 24 Psyche 1 Science 5 Psychology 1 Prologue 24 Definition of Psychology 2 Basic Concepts of Research 25 Goals of Psychology 3 Empirical Evidence and Operational Definitions 25 Founding the Science of Psychology 4 Theories and Hypotheses 26 Nature of Conscious Experience 5 Representativeness of Samples 26 Wundt, Titchener, and Structuralism 5 J. Henry Alston 5 Importance of Replication in Research 27 Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychology 6 Research Methods 27 Functions of the Conscious Mind 6 Descriptive Studies 27 William James and Functionalism 6 Survey Method 27 Studies of Memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus Naturalistic Observation 28 and Mary Whiton Calkins 7 Clinical Method 29 Cognitive Psychology 8 Correlational Studies 29 Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 8 Formal Experiments 32 Ivan Pavlov 8 Elements and Logic of Formal Experiments 33 John B. Watson and Margaret Floy Washburn 9 Placebo Control in Formal Experiments 35 Social Learning Theory 9 Blind Formal Experiments 35 Nature of the “Unconscious Mind” 9 Describing and Interpreting Data 36 Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 9 Descriptive Statistics 36 Humanistic Psychology and the Unconscious Mind 10 Descriptive Statistics in Everyday Life 37 Psychometrics: Alfred Binet 10 Reaching Conclusions from Data 38 Neuroscience Perspective 10 Ethical Principles of Research 40 Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty Areas in Ethics of Research with Human Participants 40 Psychology 13 Ethics of Research with Nonhuman Animals 41 Sociocultural Perspective 13 Cultural Relativity 14 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 44 Sociocultural Factors in the History of Psychology 15 SUMMARY 45 vii lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd vii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  viii contents APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 82 SUMMARY 86 VISUAL REVIEW OF BRAIN STRUCTURES 87 chapter three Biological Foundations of Behavior 47 Prologue 47 chapter four Nervous System: Biological Control Center 48 Interplay of Nature Neurons: Primary Units of the Nervous System 49 and Nurture 90 Parts of Neurons 49 Neural Transmission 50 Prologue 90 Myelin Sheath and Neural Transmission 51 Nature: Genetic Influences on Behavior 91 Neurotransmitters and Synaptic Transmission 52 Do Genes Influence Our Behavior and Mental Glial Cells 52 Processes? 91 Divisions of the Nervous System 56 Genetic Studies of Nonhuman Animal Behavior 91 Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System 57 Genetic Studies of Human Behavior 92 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System 58 Studies of Twins 93 Structures and Functions of the Brain 61 Studies of Adopted Children 94 Molecular Genetic Mechanisms of Inheritance 94 Hindbrain and Midbrain: Housekeeping Chores and Reflexes 61 Genes, Chromosomes, and DNA 94 Polymorphic Genes 94 Forebrain: Cognition, Motivation, Emotion, and Action 62 Dominant and Recessive Genes 96 Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Limbic System 62 Polygenic Traits 96 Cerebral Cortex: Sensory, Cognitive, and Motor Functions 64 X and Y Chromosomes and Sex 96 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex 64 Chromosome Abnormalities 97 1. Frontal Lobes 64 Genes and Behavior 97 2. Parietal Lobes 67 Nurture: Environmental Influences 98 3. Temporal Lobes 67 4. Occipital Lobes 68 Physical Environments 99 Images of the Brain at Work 69 Social Environments 99 Functions of the Hemispheres of the Cerebral Cortex 70 Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity 99 Functions of the Left and Right Cerebral Hemispheres 70 Culture and Parenting 100 Split Brains 70 Interplay of Nature and Nurture 101 Hemispheres of the Cerebral Cortex and Emotion 71 Gene-Environment Correlation 101 Plasticity of the Cortex 73 Gene-Environment Interaction 102 The Brain Is a Developing System 74 Developmental Changes in White and Gray Matter 74 Sex, Gender, and Human Diversity 104 Neurogenesis 75 Gender Identity and Gender Roles 104 The Brain Is an Interacting System 75 Gender Similarities and Gender Differences 105 Endocrine System: Chemical Messengers of the Body 77 Gender Differences in Physical Characteristics 105 Pituitary Gland 77 Gender Differences in Cognitive Ability and Achievement 106 Adrenal Glands 77 Gender Differences in Emotion and Social Behavior 106 Islets of Langerhans 79 Gender Differences in Mating and Sexual Behavior 107 Gonads 79 Origins of Gender Differences 108 Thyroid Gland 80 Sex Differences in the Brain 108 Parathyroid Glands 80 Genetics and Psychological Theory 111 Pineal Gland 80 Darwin, James, and Functionalism 111 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd viii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Rev.confirming Pages contents ix Evolutionary Psychology 111 Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of Life 144 Evolutionary Psychology and Gender Differences 112 Taste 144 Critique of Evolutionary Theory 113 Smell 145 Social-Role Theory of Gender Differences 114 Pheromone Detection 145 Critique of Social-Role Theory 115 Perception: Interpreting Sensory Messages 147 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 117 Visual Perception 147 SUMMARY 117 Perceptual Organization 148 Perceptual Constancy 148 Depth Perception 150 part two Visual Illusions 153 Color Perception 156 Awareness Multisensory Integration 156 Motivation, Emotion, and Perception 156 SUMMARY 158 VISUAL REVIEW OF THE SENSE ORGANS 160 chapter five Sensation and Perception 120 Prologue 120 Sensation: Receiving Sensory Messages 121 chapter six Stimuli: What Messages Can Be Received? 121 Transduction: Translating Messages for the Brain 122 States of Consciousness 162 Sensory Limits: How Strong Must Messages Be? 122 Prologue 162 Sensory Adaptation 122 Wide Awake: Normal Waking Consciousness 163 Psychophysics 123 Divided Consciousness: Being Two Places (Mentally) Vision: Sensing Light 125 at the Same Time 164 Light: What Is It? 125 The Concept of the Unconscious Mind 164 The Eye: How Does It Work? 126 Sleep and Dreams: Conscious while Asleep 166 Dark and Light Adaptation 127 Stages of Sleep 166 Color Vision 128 Hypnagogic State 166 Color Blindness 130 Stages of Light and Deep Sleep 167 Hearing: Sensing Sound Waves 132 REM Sleep and Dreams 168 Sound: What Is It? 132 Autonomic Storms 169 Time Spent Dreaming 169 The Ear: How Does It Work? 133 Non-REM Sleep and Dreams 169 Outer Ear 133 Middle Ear 133 Circadian Rhythms 170 Inner Ear 134 Sleep Deprivation, the Need for Sleep, and Body Senses 137 Health 171 Orientation and Movement 137 Dreams 173 Vestibular Organ 137 The Nature of Dreams 173 Kinesthetic Sense 138 Sweet Dreams: The Emotional Content of Dreams 173 Skin Senses 138 Creative and Bizarre Aspects of Dreams 174 Pressure and Sensitivity 139 Meaning of Dreams 174 Temperature 139 Day Residue 174 Pain 139 Dream Interpretation 174 Pain Gates 140 Nightmares and Other Sleep Phenomena 175 Phantom Limbs 142 Sleep Disorders 175 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd ix 26/04/11 6:24 PM  x contents Altered States of Consciousness 177 Negative Reinforcement 207 Meditation 178 Punishment 209 Mindfulness 178 Dangers of Punishment 209 Hypnosis 179 Guidelines for the Use of Punishment 210 Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning 211 Mesmer and Mesmerism 179 Depersonalization 180 Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization 212 Drugs and Altered Consciousness 181 Extinction: Learning When to Quit 214 Drug Use: Basic Considerations 183 Removing the Source of Learning 215 Psychotropic Drugs 183 Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition 215 Stimulants 183 Theoretical Interpretations of Learning 217 Depressants 184 Cognition or Connection? 218 Sedatives and Tranquilizers 184 Place Learning 218 Narcotics 184 Latent Learning 218 Inhalants 185 Insight Learning and Learning Sets 219 Hallucinogens 185 Modeling: Learning by Watching Others 221 Marijuana 185 Biological Factors in Learning 223 Designer Drugs 186 Drug Abuse and Dependence 186 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 226 Drug Abuse 186 SUMMARY 226 Drug Dependence 186 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 189 SUMMARY 191 chapter eight part three Memory 228 Prologue 228 Learning and Cognition Three Stages of Memory: An Information-Processing View 230 Sensory Register 230 Short-Term Memory 231 Rehearsal in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s chapter seven Limited Life Span 231 Chunking in Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited Basic Principles of Learning 193 Capacity 232 Prologue 193 Long-Term Memory 234 Definition of Learning 194 Types of Long-Term Memory: Procedural, Episodic, and Semantic 234 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association 195 Organization in Long-Term Memory 236 Association: The Key Element in Classical Retrieval of Long-Term Memories 237 Conditioning 196 Serial Learning 239 Terminology of Classical Conditioning 197 Levels of Processing: An Alternative to the Stage Definition of Classical Conditioning 198 Model 240 Deep Processing and Survival Value 240 Importance of Classical Conditioning 201 Elaboration and Deep Processing 241 Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences Forgetting and Why It Occurs 243 of Your Behavior 203 Decay Theory 243 Positive Reinforcement 204 Interference Theory 244 Primary and Secondary Reinforcement 205 Schedules of Positive Reinforcement 205 Reconstruction (Schema) Theory 245 Shaping 206 Motivated Forgetting 248 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd x 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Rev.confirming Pages contents xi Biological Basis of Memory 251 Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 285 Synaptic Theories of Memory: Search for the Engram 251 Measuring Intelligence: The IQ Test 286 Consolidation 252 Construction of Intelligence Tests 286 DNA and Memory 252 Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests 288 Stages of Memory and the Brain 252 Tacit Intelligence 289 Amnesia: Disorders of Memory 254 Individual Differences in Intelligence: Contributing Retrograde Amnesia 254 Factors 290 Anterograde Amnesia 254 The Importance of Intelligence in Modern Society 291 Are People Becoming More Intelligent? 292 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 257 SUMMARY 261 Race-Ethnic Differences in Intelligence and Achievement: The Narrowing Gap 294 The Bell Curve: Policy Implications of Differences in Intelligence 295 Extremes in Intelligence: Mental Retardation and Giftedness 296 chapter nine APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 299 Cognition, Language, SUMMARY 301 and Intelligence 263 Prologue 263 part four Definition of Cognition 265 Concepts: The Basic Units of Thinking 265 Developmental Simple and Complex Concepts 266 Psychology Natural Concepts 266 Natural Concepts Are Basic 266 Natural Concepts Are Good Prototypes 268 Thinking and Problem Solving: Using Information to Reach Goals 269 Formulating the Problem 270 chapter ten Understanding and Organizing the Elements of the Developmental Psychology 303 Problem 271 Generating and Evaluating Alternative Solutions 271 Prologue 303 Emotional Factors in Decision Making 272 Basic Processes of Development 304 Creative Problem Solving: Convergent and Divergent Nature and Nurture 305 Thinking 273 Maturation 305 Language: Symbolic Communication 277 Early Experience and Critical Periods 306 Semantics: The Meaning of What Is Said 277 Imprinting 306 Generative Property of Language: Elements and Rules 277 Early Social Deprivation 307 Stage Theories of Development 310 Phonemes 278 Morphemes 278 Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development 311 Syntax 278 Stage Theories of Moral Development 311 Language and Thought: The Whorfian Hypothesis 279 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 311 Animal Languages: Can We Talk to the Animals? 280 Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development 313 Intelligence: The Sum Total of Cognition 282 Erikson’s Stage Theory of Personality Development 314 Differing Views of Intelligence 283 Normal Development across the Life Span 315 Intelligence: General or Specific Abilities? 283 The Biological Basis of General Intelligence 284 Prenatal Development 317 Cognitive Components of Intelligent Behavior 284 Development in Infancy and Childhood 318 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xi 26/04/11 6:24 PM  xii contents Neonatal Period: The Newborn 318 Primary Motives: Biological Needs 351 Infancy: 2 Weeks to 2 Years 318 Homeostasis: Biological Thermostats 352 Physical Development 318 Hunger: The Regulation of Food Intake 352 Cognitive Development (Sensorimotor Stage) 319 Body Weight and the “Set Point” 354 Emotional and Social Development 320 Psychological Factors in Hunger 354 Early Childhood: 2 to 7 Years 322 Thirst: The Regulation of Water Intake 355 Cognitive Development (Preoperational Stage) 322 Emotional and Social Development 322 Biological Regulation of Thirst 355 Psychological Factors in Thirst 356 Middle Childhood: 7 to 11 Years 323 Cognitive Development (Concrete Operational Stage) 323 Psychological Motives 357 Emotional and Social Development 324 Stimulus Motivation: Seeking Novel Adolesecent Development 325 Stimulation 357 Physical Development 325 Optimal Arousal Theory 357 Cognitive Development Arousal and Performance: The Yerkes-Dodson (Formal Operational Stage) 326 Law 358 Affiliation Motivation 358 Emotional and Social Development 328 Adolescent Social Development 328 Achievement Motivation 360 Adolescent Emotions 328 Solomon’s Opponent-Process Theory of Acquired Adulthood: Young Adulthood through Older Adulthood 330 Motives 361 Physical Development 330 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 362 Cognitive Development 330 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives 364 Emotional and Social Development 331 Sexual Motivation and Sexuality 366 Stages of Adult Life 332 Sexual Response Cycle 366 Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation (17 to 45 Years) 332 Similarity of Sexual Motivation to Other Primary Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation Motives 368 (40 to 65 Years) 332 Climacteric 334 Differences Between Sexual Motivation and Other Later Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair (65 Years On) 334 Primary Motives 369 Evaluation of Stage Theories of Adulthood 335 Hormones and Other Biological Factors in Sexual Causes of Aging and Predictors of Longevity 336 Behavior 369 Death and Dying: The Final “Stage” 337 Patterns of Sexual Behavior 370 Variations in Development that Make US Unique 339 Sexual Orientation 372 Getting There at Different Times 340 Stigmatization, Stress, and Sexual Orientation 373 Origins of Sexual Orientation 374 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 341 Emotions 375 VISUAL REVIEW OF STAGE THEORIES OF Three Theories of Emotion 377 DEVELOPMENT 347 James-Lange Theory 377 Cannon-Bard Theory 378 Cognitive Theory 379 part five Role of Learning and Culture in Emotions 381 The Self The Pursuit of Happiness 382 Does Money Buy Happiness? 383 Aggression: Emotional and Motivational Aspects 385 Freud’s Instinct Theory: The Release of Aggressive Energy 386 chapter eleven Frustration-Aggression Theory 386 Motivation and Emotion 349 Social Learning Theory 387 Prologue 349 Cognitive Theory of Aggression 387 Definitions of Motivation and Emotion 351 Violent Youth Gangs 388 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Rev.confirming Pages contents xiii APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 390 Objective Personality Tests 420 SUMMARY 391 Evaluation of Personality Tests 420 VISUAL REVIEW OF THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND SUMMARY 422 EMOTION 392 VISUAL REVIEW OF PERSONALITY THEORY 423 part six chapter twelve Health and Adjustment Personality 394 Prologue 394 Definition of Personality 395 Trait Theory: Describing the Consistencies of Personality 396 chapter thirteen Allport’s Trait Theory 396 Stress and Health 424 Five-Factor Model of Personality 397 Prologue 424 Importance of Personality Traits 398 Stress: Challenges to Coping 425 Psychoanalytic Theory: Sigmund Freud 401 Sources of Stress 425 Freud’s Mind: Three Levels of Consciousness 402 Life Events 426 Freud’s Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego 402 Frustration 428 Id: The Selfish Beast 403 Conflict 428 Ego: The Executive of Personality 403 Pressure 430 Superego: The Conscience and Ego Ideal 403 Environmental Conditions 431 Displacement and Identification: Becoming a Member of General Aspects of Stress Reactions 431 Society 404 Psychological Reactions to Stress 431 Growing Up: The Stages of Psychosexual Development 404 Physical Reactions to Stress and Health 432 Oral Stage (Birth to 1 Year) 405 The General Adaptation Syndrome 432 Anal Stage (1 to 3 Years) 405 Depression, Anxiety, and Health 435 Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) 405 Factors that Influence Reactions to Stress 436 Latency Stage (6 to 11 Years) 406 Genital Stage (11 Years On) 406 Prior Experience with the Stress 436 Theories Derived from Psychoanalysis 407 Developmental Factors 437 Carl Jung 407 Predictability and Control 437 Alfred Adler 408 Social Support 438 Karen Horney 408 Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Cognition and Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura 410 Personality 438 Role of Learning in Personality 410 Cognitive Factors in Stress Reactions 439 Role of Cognition in Personality 411 Personality Characteristics and Stress Reactions 439 Situationism and Interactionism 412 Person Variables in Reactions to Stress: Gender and Ethnicity 440 Humanistic Theory: Maslow and Rogers 414 Gender Differences in Response to Stress 440 Inner-Directedness and Subjectivity 414 Gender Differences in the Benefits of Marriage 441 The Self-Concept 414 Fight-or-Flight and Tend-and-Befriend 441 Self-Actualization 415 Ethnic Differences in Stress 442 Humanism Compared with Classic Psychoanalysis and Coping with Stress 443 Social Learning Theory 416 Effective Coping 443 Personality Assessment: Taking a Measure of the Person 418 Ineffective Coping 444 Interviews and Observational Methods 419 Changing Health-Related Behavior Patterns 447 Projective Personality Tests 419 Learning to Relax 447 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xiii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  xiv contents Eating Right, Exercising, and Doing Just What the Cognitive Factors in Depression 476 Doctor Ordered 448 Bipolar Disorder 479 Improved Eating Habits 448 Schizophrenia 480 Regular Aerobic Exercise 449 Causes of Schizophrenia 481 Not Smoking 450 Subtypes of Schizophrenia 481 Medical Compliance 450 Paranoid Schizophrenia 481 Become an Advocate for Sustainable Energy 450 Disorganized Schizophrenia 482 Safety Management 452 Catatonic Schizophrenia 482 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 455 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 482 SUMMARY 456 Personality Disorders 483 Schizoid Personality Disorder 484 Antisocial Personality Disorder 484 Other Personality Disorders 485 Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders 487 chapter fourteen Transvestism and Gender Identity Disorder 487 Abnormal Behavior 458 Fetishism 488 Prologue 458 Sexual Sadism and Masochism 488 Definition of Abnormal Behavior 459 Voyeurism and Exhibitionism 489 Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior 460 Forced Sexual Behavior 489 Supernatural Theories 460 Rape 489 Biological Theories 461 Sexual Abuse of Children 489 Psychological Theories 462 Sexual Harassment 490 Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior 462 Sexual Dysfunction and Sexual Health 492 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire 492 Disorders 462 Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal 493 Public Health Burden of Abnormal Behavior 463 Orgasm Dysfunctions 494 The Problem of Stigma 463 The Concept of Insanity 464 SUMMARY 495 Anxiety Disorders 466 Phobias 466 Generalized and Panic Anxiety Disorders 466 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 468 Stressors That Cause PTSD 468 Terrorism and PTSD 469 chapter fifteen Who Develops PTSD? 469 Therapies 497 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders 470 Prologue 497 Somatoform Disorders 470 Definition of Psychotherapy 498 Somatization Disorders and Hypochondriasis 471 Ethical Standards for Psychotherapy 499 Conversion Disorders and Somatoform Pain Disorders 471 Psychoanalysis 500 Dissociative Disorders 472 Techniques of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 500 Depersonalization 472 Free Association 500 Dream Interpretation 501 Dissociative Amnesia and Fugue 472 Interpretation of Resistance 501 Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality) 473 Interpretation of Transference 501 Mood Disorders 475 Catharsis 502 Major Depression 475 Excerpt from Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 502 Causes of Major Depression 476 Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depression 502 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xiv 26/04/11 6:24 PM  Rev.confirming Pages contents xv Humanistic Psychotherapy 505 Attitudes and Persuasion 538 Client-Centered Psychotherapy 505 Origins of Attitudes 538 Excerpt from Client-Centered Psychotherapy 506 Persuasion and Attitude Change 538 Gestalt Psychotherapy 507 Characteristics of the Speaker 538 Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 508 Characteristics of the Message 539 Characteristics of the Listeners 540 Fear Reduction Methods 509 Techniques of Social Influence 541 Behavioral Activation and Social Skills Training 509 Behavior and Attitude Change: Cognitive Dissonance Excerpt from Social Skills Training 510 Theory 541 Cognitive Restructuring 512 Prejudice and Stereotypes 543 Excerpt from Cognitive Restructuring 513 Automatic Prejudice 544 Causes of Stereotypes and Prejudice 544 Group and Family Therapy 515 Combating Prejudice 545 Group Therapy 515 Processes of Person Perception 549 Family Therapy 516 Attribution Processes in Person Perception 549 Medical Therapies 518 Negative Information: The Bad Outweighs the Good 549 Drug Therapy 518 Primacy Effects: The Importance of First Impressions 550 Dietary Therapies 519 Interpersonal Attraction: Friendship and Love 551 Electroconvulsive Therapy 519 “Chemistry” of Love and Social Bonding 552 Transcranial Stimulation 520 Characteristics of the Other Person in Interpersonal Attraction 552 Psychosurgery 520 Similar and Complementary Characteristics 552 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY 523 Competence and Our “Ideal Self” 553 SUMMARY 525 Self-Disclosure 553 Physical Attractiveness 553 Characteristics of the Perceiver 555 Personality and Interpersonal Attraction 555 part seven Emotions and Person Perception 555 Gender Differences in Interpersonal Attraction 555 Social Context Proximity 556 Mutual Liking 556 Maintaining Relationships 556 Expectations Versus Reality in Relationships 556 Equity in Relationships 557 chapter sixteen SUMMARY 559 Social Psychology 526 Prologue 526 Definition of Social Psychology 527 Groups and Social Influence 527 chapter seventeen Deindividuation 528 Uninvolved Bystanders 528 Psychology Applied Working and Solving Problems in Groups 529 to the Environment Group Problem Solving 530 and to Professions 561 Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience 532 Prologue 561 Conformity 532 Applied Fields of Psychology 563 Social Roles and Social Norms 533 Obedience: Direct Influence by Authority Figures 534 Environmental Psychology and Sustainability 563 The Positive Side of Groups 536 Architectural Design of Workspace and Living Units 563 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xv 26/04/11 6:24 PM  xvi contents Sustainability and Environmental Protection 564 Psychology and Law 587 Overpopulation 565 Characteristics of Defendants and Plaintiffs 587 Resource Depletion 566 Characteristics of Jury Members 588 Pollution and Climate Change 566 Psychological Factors in Presenting Evidence 590 Psychological Aspects of Sustainability 568 Psychology and Work 571 Interrogating Criminal Suspects 590 Interrogation Techniques 590 Employee Selection and Evaluation 571 False Confessions 591 Interviews 572 Psychology and Education 592 Tests of Intelligence 572 Tests of Specific Abilities, Skills, and Job Knowledge 573 Direct Instruction 592 Performance Tests 574 Mastery Learning and Intelligent Tutoring Systems 593 Ratings of Job Performance 574 Motivating Learning in the Classroom 594 Assessment Centers 575 Criterion-Referenced Testing 594 Evaluation of Organizational Citizenship 575 Mainstreaming: Education for Persons Validity of Job Selection Measures 576 with Special Needs 595 Fairness in Employee Selection 578 SUMMARY 596 Gender Biases in Employee Selection 578 Race-Ethnic Biases in Employee Selection 578 Glossary G-2 Job Satisfaction, Happiness, and Productivity 580 References R-2 Management Strategies to Improve Job Satisfaction, Happiness, and Productivity 580 Credits C-1 Management Strategies to Minimize Social Loafing 581 Name Index NI-1 Human Factors Engineering 582 Subject Index SI-2 Health Psychology in the Workplace 585 lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xvi 28/04/11 4:12 PM  Rev.confirming Pages Preface Although the Preface is the first part of Psychology: An Introduction that you read, it is the last part that I write. It is my opportunity to reflect on the completed project in the hope that these reflections will help introduce you to the text. Over 11 edi- tions, the unchanging goal of Psychology has been to teach. We (referring to the large group of talented psychologists, editors, consultants, and reviewers who have worked with me) have centered our efforts on giving you course material that fully captures the immense importance and fascination of the scientific study of ourselves. I have done my best to teach the concepts and facts of psychology in the clearest and most exciting manner possible. In addition, I worked very hard to make sure that the scientific basis of what is said is as strong as the science will allow. The gratify- ing responses of both instructors and students to the first ten editions of Psychology have been a wonderful source of encouragement for these efforts. In the three years since the last revision, the thousands of psychologists at work in research have given us an enormous amount of new information. The rapidity of scientific advance is always striking to me when I read the wide range of psychological literatures needed to keep up with the field. This progress is reflected in many changes in the content of the Psychology. Most of these changes reflect confirmations and relatively minor modifications of existing hypotheses, but there have been some notable advances in knowledge and theory. In addition, I have made a number of changes designed to teach psychology better. Hallmark Features While incorporating new material, the time-tested format of Psychology has not changed in the 11th edition. Students like the strong pedagogical format of the text, and research continues to support its use. As before, learning and memory are enhanced through the use of advance organizers followed by clearly written text, with explicit organizational cues, and repeated reviews. Psychology offers thorough topic coverage and standard organization designed to fit courses as they are most commonly taught. But it differs significantly from other textbooks in two main ways: First, every effort has been made to create a writing style that is—as one former student kindly described it—friendly. Psychology does not attempt to impress students with the arcane complexities of the science of psychol- ogy. It was written to provide a clear, informative, challenging, exciting, and personal introduction to the science of psychology. All the necessary complexities are taught, but in the clearest manner possible. Second, Psychology supports meaningful learning. In Support of Meaningful Learning Psychology differs from other textbooks in its emphasis on meaningful learning. It contains many elements designed to enhance learning and remembering based on cur- rent models of semantic memory. The content of the first course in psychology can be thought of as a hierarchical organization of concepts and facts. Quite simply, this means that information about psychology is not a disorganized jumble of facts. Some information “goes with” other information, some concepts are detailed elaborations of more general concepts, and so on. To improve learning and memory of the contents xvii lah35163_fm_i-xxxiv.indd xvii 26/04/11 6:24 PM  xviii preface of this course, students need to grasp the overall organization of the new information to better understand and retain the individual concepts and facts. Based on what has been learned from years of research on learning from text- books, five pedagogical supports help the student understand how new information about psychology is organized and to process that information: 1. Advance organizers. Considerable research indicates that students learn and chapter one retain information better when they have an advance understanding of the hierar- Introduction to psychology chical organization of the new information being learned. To accomplish this, the student is given two kinds of advance organizers before reading the main body of the text. The student is first presented with a chapter outline of the major topics covered within the chapter, a device common to many textbooks. But to add to the effectiveness of this bare-bones overview, a prose organizer, called the Prologue, both piques the student’s interest with exciting information and highlights the major concepts in the forthcoming chapter. Thus, the student is provided with two forward looks at the chapter to create a cognitive organization on which to “hang” Chapter Outline Psyche 1 Science 5 Psychology PSYCHE 1 SCIENCE 5 PSYCHOLOGY 1 Definition of Psychology 2 Goals of Psychology 3 Welcome to psychology! You are invited to learn about one of life’s most interesting subjects—you. You enrolled in this course know- ing that it had something to do with people. But what exactly is new facts and concepts. Founding the Science of Psychology 4 Contemporary Perspectives and Specialty psychology? Areas in Psychology 13 The earliest origins of psychology are found in the writings of the What We Know about Human Behavior: ancient Greek philosophers about the nature of life, particularly in the Some Starting Places 19 SUMMARY 21 work of Aristotle. Aristotle, who was born in 384 B.C.E., was broadly VISUAL REVIEW OF HISTORICAL TIME LINE 23 interested in the nature of living things. He collected and dissected plants and animals to see how their organs sustained life. He stud- ied reproduction to see how life was recreated in each generation, and he studied the everyday actions of living people as they reasoned, spoke, remembered, and learned. In his later years, Aristotle discussed 1 lah35163_ch01_001-023.indd 1 3/11/11 10:26 AM 2. Questions to stimulate critical thinking. An important fea- There are no right or wrong answers to the following questions. They are presented to help you become an active reader and think critically about what you have just read. Thinking Critically ture of Psychology is the set of questions designed to stimulate about Psychology 1. How do your culture and ethnic identity influence your experiences as a college student? critical thinking. These critical thinking questions appear at the 2. Are there elements of both collectivism and individualism in your culture? If so, end of each section. They are designed to catch the student’s how is individualism expressed in your culture? Correct Answers: 1. c (p. 99), 2. a (p. 99), 3. d (p. 100), 4. b (p. 100) attention and stimulate thought for two reasons. First, it is important that students do not passively absorb new informa- tion but, rather, critically evaluate and ponder what they are learning. Moreover, it may be more effective to teach critical thinking skills through the content of a specific course than in the abstract. And what course is more appropriate than psychology—in which human beings ponder themselves? Second, current research suggests that thinking about what you have just learned leads to deeper semantic processing and better retention. Thus, both as an aid to student reading and as a stimulus for classroom discussion, these high-interest questions at the end of each section are important pedagogical tools. To help students prepare to use these critical thinking questions, a discussion on critical thinking appears in the “Before You Begin” section. lah35163_ch04_090-119.indd 101 3/14/11 11:49 AM 3. Nested hierarchical reviews. The interrelationships among Review Human lives are not just the product of our genes. On the contrary, our behavior and mental processes are profoundly shaped by our physical and social environments. There new concepts are highlighted further in review and summary is growing evidence that exposure to some toxic chemicals early in life can influence neu- rotransmitter functioning and reduce intellectual ability. Most psychological studies of the environment are concerned with how we learn how to behave from others, however. To sections. Following each major section within each chapter, the understand how we learn how the social environment shapes our lives, we must under- stand culture and ethnic identity. Culture refers to the patterns of behavior, beliefs, and content of that section is briefly reviewed in prose. In addition, values that are shared by a group of people. One important feature that distinguishes cul- tures from around the world is collectivism versus individualism. In collectivistic cultures, the emphasis is on the collective well-being of the family and the larger culture, not on the students can test their knowledge of each section in the Check individual. In individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on the well-being of individual. Ethnic identity refers to each person’s sense of belonging to a particular group and of sharing that Your Learning sections. At the end of each chapter, the Summary group’s beliefs, attitudes, skills, music, and ceremonies. Members of an ethnic group often share racial characteristics, but there are many exceptions to this rule. main content of the chapter is again summarized, but this Chapter 4 provides an overview of how genes and environments 1. Because identical and fraternal twins share the same time in a hierarchical outline that visually highlights the work together in complex ways to promote human diversity. home environments, but differ in the extent to which I. Genetic influences on behavior and mental processes they share the same genes, studies of twins can be used to study genetic influences. organization of the material. are studied in different ways in nonhuman animals and 2. Studies of adopted children can determine if they humans. lah35163_ch04_090-119.indd 100 resemble their biological parents (from whom they11:49 AM 3/14/11 A. In nonhuman animals, methods such as selective breed- received their genes) or their adoptive parents (from ing can be used to determine if an aspect of behavior is whom they received their home environments) more influenced by genetic factors. on a psychological trait. B. In humans, “natural experiments” must be used to sepa- C. Sequences of DNA (genes) on chromosomes in the rate genetic and environmental influences on behavior cells of our body provide the genetic mechanism of and mental processes. inheritance. 117 lah35163_ch04_090-119.indd 117 3/14/11 11:50 AM lah35163_fm_i-xx