Medieval Test #2 PDF

Medieval Test #2 Lecture #6 - Catholic (“Universal”) Church o Advantages for an average person ▪ Sense of belonging to an international Christian Commonweath/community ▪ Communitas Christiana o “Christendom”: Chris...

Medieval Test #2 Lecture #6 - Catholic (“Universal”) Church o Advantages for an average person ▪ Sense of belonging to an international Christian Commonweath/community ▪ Communitas Christiana o “Christendom”: Christian commonwealth Communitas Christiana o First pope: St. Peter, leader of apostles; ▪ Papacy to lead the Church ▪ From Pontifex Maximus to Pope - Issues with Clergy Buying Their Offices o Clergy and Biships could buy their offices ▪ Lead to the nobility and Church selling Church offices as a source of income ▪ Lead to greater corruption and installing “less than pious, knowledgeable and faithful” individuals in positions in the Church ▪ Some bought Church offices for political reasons to support their family’s aspirations, or to make money by encouraging greater “offerings” from their congregation - Issues with Clergy Buying Their Offices o Clergy, at all levels of the Church, could initially marry ▪ Their children inherited Church land, which was a loss of income and wealth to the Church o In the early 11th century, the Chruch was concerned with this, and a lack of priestly celibacy and morality ▪ 1022 Pope Benedict V111 prohibited children of priests from inheriting Church property ▪ 1074 Pope Gregory V11 banned clerical marriages - Why embrace a Monastic life? o Many chose to live in absolute isolation as a Hermit (“one who lives in the Desert”) or an Anchorite (“one who has withdrawn”) o St. Augustine (354-430 CE) and others Regarded chaste asceticism (live in isolation) as the perfect Christian life (Chasity best) - Origins: East o Greek word ‘monachos’ = “lonely one” (ie monk) o Traditionally, the “father” of hermitic monasticism was the Egyptian Anthony the Hermit (250-356) o He claimed that Jesus Christ has told him to “go, sell all you have and give to the poor and follow me”  o He moved out to the edge of the desert to live in isolation and pray o The Egyptians and Church also claimed that demons lived there, which he rejected (“face his demons”) o St.Anthony was greatly admired for his lifestyle and devotion o The first of the holy men called ‘desert fathers”, believed to have attained a special closeness to God o Christians start to turn t holy people, not just holy relics o Many saw them as the new martyrs and followed their example - Origins: West o Martin of Turs (316-397) o Bishop of Tours ▪ Soldier, monk, hermit, and Bishop o Exorcist and destroyer of country pagan temples o 372 Founds Tours Abbey of Marmoutier monastery ▪ Will become one of the most prominent and influential in France - Motivation to Join a Monastery o “Conversion” ▪ Away from sin, closeness to God o Escape from disintegrating world ▪ Security, predictability ▪ Contribution to a greater whole o Public demonstration of contrition ▪ Especially for the wealthy o Outlet for unwanted chaildren or younger children who will not inherit land and property - Social roles of monks and nuns o Not clergy, since they are not ordained o Not laity ▪ Worldly life renounced ▪ Tonsure the top of the head as a sign of humility and dedication ▪ No material possessions o Holy men/women ▪ Highly respected by laity, wisdom sought - The Benedictines o St. Benedict of Nursia (c.480- v.547) ▪ “Father of western monasticism” ▪ The “Rule of St Benedict” will set the standard and pattern for all other great monastic Orders o “The Rule of St Benedict” ▪ The Rule is made up of 73 short chapters  ▪ Its wisdom is of two kinds: spiritual (how to live a Christocentric life on earth) and administrative (how to Run a monastery efficiently) ▪ Benedict’s Rule discerned three monastic virtues: obedience, silence, and humility ▪ The basic duty of the monk was to pray for the rest of society ▪ In the Middle Ages, the monks who followed Benedict’s Rule were not called Benedictines but rather black monks, because of the colour of their habits ▪ Monasteries became the centers for book copying and study, scholarship, and sophisticated agriculture techniques ▪ Through land ownershup, they became quite wealthy o St. Benedict and St Scholastica ▪ St Scholastica (d.543) was his twin sister Established Benedictine monastery for women nearby o St. Benedict’s Rule: a monk’s daily life ▪ Ora et Labora (“pray and work”) 8 hours of sleep, 8 hours of praryer, and 8 hours to manual work, sacred reading, or works of charity o Liturgy of the Hours (Schedule for Daily Prayers) ▪ Matins/Vigils (during the night, at about 2 a.m.) ▪ Lauds or Dawn Prayer (at dawn, about 5 a.m., but earlier in summer, later in winter) ▪ Prime or Early Morning Prayer (First Hour = approximately 6 a.m.) ▪ Terce or Mid-Morning Prayer (Third Hour = approximately 9 a.m.) ▪ Sext or Midday Prayer (Sixth Hour = approximately 12 noon) ▪ None or Mid-Afternoon Prayer (Ninth Hour = approximately 3 p.m.) ▪ Vespers or Evening Prayer ("at the lighting of the lamps", about 6 p.m.) ▪ Compline or Night Prayer (before retiring, about 7 p.m.) o While not praying ▪ Most monasteries are agrarian communities - Manuscripts o Scriptorum: ancient latin and greek “pagan” texts copied and studied (ie Cicero, Aristotle, Plato, Virgil, Ovid) in this part of the monastery o St. Jerome (c.340-420) translates the Bible from Hebrew and Greek into definitive Latin Bible (“Vulgate Bible”) - Leadership o Head of monastery: Abbot or abbess (qualities: chaste, sober, merciful) - Other regulations o Vow of poverty: no monk can own “anything” personally o Everything held in common - The Monastery o Equipped so as to avoid the need to travel  o Most self-reliant and equipped with mills, gardens, kitchens, bakery, water - Monastic reform: Cluny o Problems ▪ Some saw the Benedictines as role models, others as too worldly ▪ Declining monastic discipline ▪ Landowner-donors interfering in monastic affairs ▪ Faithful monks corrupted, distracted and influenced by non-religious ▪ More focus on prayer for the good of all needed ▪ Some monasteries too independent - Monastic reform: Cluniacs o Monastery was to be free from all secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions and was directly under the authority of the Pope o Berno (909-926) chosen as first Abbott ▪ Set the early example of reform and leadership ▪ Opposed aristocratic members/influence ▪ Their rule was stricter than that of the Benedictines ▪ Their purpose was to praise God and d charitable works outside the walls of the monastery ▪ Often viewed as “earthly angels” because of this o Developed close ties with local nobility, who provided them with land and laborers to work it o This attracted many more priests to the Order o Strong organization and administration kept all connected, and aware of events in the outside world - Mendicant Orders o Early 13th century saw a new form of religious Order, called Mendicants (from the Latin verb “mendicare” which means “to beg”) o Against heresy and heathens o Life of poverty by example (yet didn’t prevent some Orders from getting rich) o Heavily involved in teaching o 13th century Dominicans and Franciscans are examples of these Orders ▪ Friers (not monks) who lived in the world ▪ Not part of wealthy monasteries, so they were mendicants (or “beggars”) - Mendicant Orders: Franciscans o 1209 founded by St. Francis of Assisi ▪ Ordo Fratrum Minorum (Order of Brothers Minor) ▪ “Grey Friars” o Frances was a Mystic: all nature worthy to hear word of God ▪ Creation is beautiful and that the world is a testimony to god’s love and creativity ▪ Preached forgiveness  - Mendicant Orders: Dominicans o 1215 founded by St.Dominic o Called Dominican friars, Blackfriars or members of the “order of preachers” (O.P) o Popular medieval wisdom claimed their name came from the Latin words domini+canes which ominously translated to “the hounds of God” o Greated to deal with Cathar heresy ▪ Later took part in the Inquisition o Saw a need for educated preachers to combat heresy ▪ Focus on scholarship and conversion through rational argument - Contributions of the Monasteries o Promoted Western spiritual and intellectual culture o Provided scholars, manuscripts and missionaries o VAst estates and family connections gave them influence in political circles o Secular society needed their skills (ie scribes for princes' lawyers and courts) o Personally poor but with immense corporate wealth o Provided both leadership and reform to the Christian Church o Advances in agriculture through land ownership and self-sufficiency o Major civilizing influence in the Christian West o Land wealth made them, at times, responsible for political and legal administration, and military recruitment - Monastic Breweries: St Gall o The St Gall monastery in Switzerland developed the most common and productive medieval monastic brewery design in 820 o Some monasteries brewed stronger beers since they found that travelers would pay extra for it. Lecture #7 - Pilgrimage: What? o Undertaking a journey to visit a holy site. The more “miraculous” the saint, the more popular the destination o Holiness rooted in a sense of place ▪ Important relics ▪ Important event - Pilgrimage: Why? o As penance for a crime or sin o To obtain saintly or divine help against a disease (Lourdes) or other serious problem o To give thanks for a cure o Recreation with. Purpose: expressing one’s devotion o Recreation without a purpose: adventure - A Medieval Pilgrim’s Clothing o Pilgrims’ badges: lead or pewter brooch ▪ Both secular and holy (proof of pilgrimage and/or penance) ▪ Purchased as souvenirs and gifts ▪ First badges sold: the scallop shells at Santiago di Compostela - Pilgrim food o On the road: hearty, non-perishable breads (panforte) - Pilgrimage: where? o Jerusalem:main holy sites ▪ Church of the Holy Sepulchre (contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: Calvary and Jesus’ tomb) o Rome: ▪ Shrine of St. Peter (#1 destination) ▪ Next to Jerusalem, the most popular destination o Santiago di Compostella (Spain) o Canterbury Cathedral ▪ Shrine of St. Thomas a Becket ▪ Pilgrimage is celebrated in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales Canterbury Tales o Written by Geoffrey Chauncer between 1387 and 1400 o Pilgrimage in literature o Credible picture of traveling pilgrims - The Relic Hunters: The 2 Types of Relics o Brandea ▪ Most common relics in the first centuries of the Christian era (up to the 6th c. CE) ▪ Ordinary objects, but had become holy “relics” by coming into contact with holy places or people o Bodily relics ▪ Actual body parts of a saint (hair, teeth, bones, skin) ▪ 787 CE all new Christian churches could not be consecrated unless it had a holy relic ▪ Growth of Christianity in 8th c. = new churches being built = more relics needed = saints dismembered to consecrate churches. - The Relic Hunters: Traders and Fakers o Looting of Constantinople in 1204 (4th Crusade) glutted the market - The Clash of Churc and State: Causes: - Reform of Papal elections (1059) o College of Cardinals, not Emperors o Cardinals choose the Pope, and the Pope chooses Cardinals - Anti-simony (lay investiture)  o Church offices bought/sold by Kings o Kings (laymen) invest Bishops and priests o Church tries to stop this o State tries to control the Church and remove their political influence - Church-State Relations o Conflict with universal pretensions of Holy Roman Empire ▪ Heirs of Charlemage ▪ Heirs, in turn, of the HRE itself o As such, Kings and Emperors had claimed authority over the Church and investing priests and Bishops - Pope Gelasius l and The “Two Swords” o God gave the Pope “Two Swords”, one for Secular Temporal authority (for King’s and Emperors), and one for Priestly Spiritual authority (for the Pope) o The authority of Kings is inferior to the authority of Popes o The Pope can take back the “sword” from Kings if necassary - The “Two swords” Theory o Gregory Vll publishes his Dictatus Papae (“Papal Dictation”) in 1075 to show his support of the “Two Swords” doctrine o Adds “That it may be permitted to him to depose emperors” - The Investiture Controversy o 1075: Investiture controversy between Pope Gregory Vll and King Henry lV HRE o Gregory Vll opposes lay investiture of new bishops (a ring and staff) ▪ Ring = married to the Church ▪ Staff = good shepherd o Henry politically weak and in peril ▪ Henry goes to Italy to meet the Pope, beg forgiveness and save his throne o January 1077 Henry appears barefoot and in penitent robes before the castle of Canossa, where the Pope was staying ▪ Left crying and begging in the snow for 3 days before forgiven - Concordat of Worms (1122) o Pope and Church appoint bishops, while kings/emperors grant bishops territorial and administrative jurisdiction. Lecture #8 - The Crusades o “Reconquista” of Spain from Muslim forces ongoing from 711 - The Crusades: External Causes o In 1095, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos asks Pope Gregory VI and Pope Urban II for military aid Just wanted some mercenaries that he could command - Augstine’s “Just War” (jus bellum justum)  o Christian beliefs spoke out agaisnt killing o How do you reconcile this in a violent world? o St Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) determined that under certian circumstance, killing in a “just war” was acceptable to God. A “just war”: 1. Had a just cuase and was a response to aggressiom 2. Had been sanctioned by a legitimate prince (or Pope) 3. Users of violence must have the right intentions - The First Crusade (1096-199) o Called in 1095 by pope Urban II in Clermont, central southern France o Promise adventure, land, wealth, glory, and remission of sins if they free Jerusalem from the “infidel” o Crusaders were holy “pilgrims” o “Deus Volt” (“God wills it”) o Armies set out the following year (1096) ▪ Peter the Hermit set out early with a pious “mob” in the “Popular (or People’s) Crusade” Attack Jews along the way 20,000 slaughtered - First Crusade: results o Antioch (1098) and Jerusalem (1099) taken ▪ Bloody, brutal sieges o Most politically and militarily successful of all the crusades ▪ Took advantage of local political disunity in Seljuk Empire o Created string of Latin states in Middle East o 1099 creation of the four Latin Crusader States of: ▪ County of Odessa ▪ Principality of Antioch ▪ County of Tripoli ▪ Kingdom of Jerusalem o As a group, they were called Outremer - The Third Crusade (1189-1192) o Jerusalem lost to Saladin 1187 ▪ Sultan of Egypt and Syria ▪ Founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty o King Richard I “The Lionheart” of England and King Philip II of France agreed to launch the Third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem from Saladin o King Frederick I Barbarossa of Germany, The Holy Roman Emperor, also to join them (but drowns in the Saleph River in Asia Minior in 1190) o Acre taken after Richard and Phillip arrive o Richard then argues with Duke Leopold V of Austria and Philip II of France o Both go home and Rochard left without allies  o Treaty with Saladin resulted in Christians granted coastal strip of land, Cyprus granted to Richard, Christian pilgrims and merchants being permitted in Jerusalem, and a three-year truce. - Richard I of England “Captivity” o December 1192 captured by Duke Leopold V of Austria o Pope Celestine III excommunicated Duke Leopold for imprisooning a crusader o 28 March 1193 Richard handed over to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI o Henry Holds Richard for ransom to get money for his planned campaign in southern Italy. - Richard I of England “Ransom” o Henry demands 150,000 marks to free Richard (2-3 times the annual income of the English Crown) o Prince John and King Philip offer Henry 80,000 marks to keep Richard until Michaelmas (September 29), 1194 o February 4, 1194, Queen Eleanor raised money and Richard released. - Richard I of England “Final Years” o Wounded by a crossbow bolt on March 25, 1199 o Died of the gangrenous wound April 6,1199 o No legitimate heir, so Prince John succeeds him as King of England - The Fourth Crusade (1201-1204) o 1204 Constantinople taken and looted ▪ Count Baldwin IX of Flanders becomes Emperor and establishes a series of Latin states in Greece ▪ Re-unites Christendom under one Pope (Patriarch subordinate to the Pope) - 1291: Last Crusader stronghold of Acre is lost - Consequences of crusades o Crippled the Byzantine Empire ▪ 1204 city taken and looted in the 4th Crusade ▪ 1261 Byzantine retook the city, but never recovered (continued to decline as a power) - Military Orders: Hospitallers o The Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem o Roots of modern St. John's Ambulance - Military Orders: Teutonic Knights o The Teutonic Knights of St. Mary's Hospital of Jerusalem - Military Orders: Templars o Founded 1118 (Bernard of Clairvaux) o The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (white surcoast with a red cross) o Disbanded in ignominy, 1307-1314, by order of King Philip IV of France o Accused of Heresy and Grand Master burned at the stake  - The Templar Curse o Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Templar Order, was burned at the stake in 1314 o Legends and myth still surround the Knights Templar Lecture #9 - Clothing o Tunics ▪ Wool, not linen o Women’s Dresses ad Head Coverings ▪ Dresses: Long, ample, at least below knee (with undershirt longer so no leg exposed) Arms should be covered as well, at least to the elbow ▪ Head covering Coif Hood Essential for morally upstanding women Only the young, single and “harlots” wear their hair loose and uncovered o Fashion of Virility: ▪ The “Codpiece” ▪ The “Poulaine” Another symbol of male virility in fashion (c. 14th c) o Materials ▪ Wool Most common animal fiber for clothes - The Medieval Family o Familia (a very Roman model ▪ Entire household Blood relation Relations through marriage Other dependents Slaves o Marriage ▪ Nobles: Require contract, becuase property involved in brideprice Arranged for status, economic or political reasons Affection neither expected nor desired Could develop with time  Clergy only needed to determine whether bride and groom related (7th, later 4th degrees, ie 1st cousins) Brideprice: paid to bride’s family to possess her legal rights Dowry: paid to groom’s family to help pay her expenses Morning-gift: paid to bride by her husband as a gift for her gift of her virginity ▪ Commoners No formal ceremony necassary No sacrament until 1215 Pre-1215: If you said you were married, you were married: cohabitation, secret marriages Most marriages arranged If not, parental permission generally required and expected A “traditional” marriage (Traditio) ▪ Traditio: Traditional wedding with all the formalities, ceremonies, vows, witnesses, dowry and rings. ▪ Clergy Common until 11th – 12th centuries Church stops to avoid Church land being given to heirs of the Clergy ▪ Marriage: purpose Nobles: o To produce male heirs o To forge alliances with other families ▪ Role of Women Under authority of father’s/husband’s mundium Ideal women are wives, widows, and Nuns ▪ Children Overall, approximately 50% child mortality rate Few methods of contraception Abortion not practiced on a significant scale Infanticide and exposure common Childbirth hazardous (complications and postpartum infection) o Medival Diet: What did they eat? ▪ Vegetables: Beans, peas, onions, cauliflower, asparagus, squash, lettuce, spinach, celery, turnips, carrots, cabbage, parsnip, mushrooms Depends on where you live  Could be very limited No potatoes, bell pepers, cocoa, cob corn ▪ Fruit: Apricots, grapes(raisions), dates, figs: dried or (as a great luxery, candied) Imports to the north and west Apples, pears, cherries, peaches, plums, strawberries, blueberries, raspberries (dried, candied or fresh) Oranges and lemons from spain (late 13th c) No bannaas, tomatoes or pineapples ▪ Grain Made into bread or boiled into porridge o Both common, cheap and filling ▪ Main sweetener: Honey ▪ Drink Wine a luxery outside the Mediterranean Beer more sanitary than water Large numbers of small scale operations Alewives Mead (honey wine) very popular Water used and drank; clean water a luxury ▪ Food Preservation Salting: most reliable, most common Explains importance of salt in Medeival commerce Lecture #10 - Women at Work o Home “cottage industries” provides family with a bit more income - Work in Towns o Church: single greatest source of employment o Food and drink, art, agriculture, construction, clothing/vestments, architecture, etc. - Guilds of craftsmen: o System of aprenticeship o Quality standards o Insurance for members (death, illness) o Not work in some towns if not in a Guild - Journeyman  o Craftsman who has completed his apprenticeship, but is not yet a Master craftsman e - Masterpiece o A piece of work completed by a Journyman in the hopes of qualifying to be a Master Craftsman - Sexuality and The Church o Church promoted celibacy for single people o Sex only permissible within the sacrament of marriage o Pre-marital and extra-martial sex were “sins of the flesh” o Priests must report adulterers and fornicators to the Bishop ▪ Punishments ranged from years of penance to death ▪ - How effective was “punishment”? o By the 12th and 13th centuries the Church prosecuted “sexual sinners” ▪ Sodomy was punishable by death ▪ A punishment called gibbeting o Brothels and Street Walkers ▪ In some areas, all prostitutes wore a particular clothing (ie a veil with a yellow stripe) o A variety of Times and Activities ▪ Each Christmas, villagers dressed in bright costimers as “mummers” and would visit their Lord’s home They would sing and perform skits in return for food or money Basis of our “Christmas Carolers” ▪ “King of the Bean” (a small bean would be baked inside a loaf of bread or cake, and the one who found it in their portion would be crowned king of the holiday feast) o Lower class entertainment ▪ Often outdoors ▪ Music, dancing, and singing ▪ Game ball or Folk football (a simple and extremely rough and violent game of football) ▪ Dice, checkers, and gambling (even by the clergy!) ▪ Riddles and story-telling ▪ Drinking in local taverns o Upper class entertainment ▪ Often indoors ▪ Chess (which mirrored medival society), checkers and backgommon (made of stone, bone, wood or ivory) o Medieval Entertainers ▪ Mummers  Masked or costumed male and females mimes and dancers ▪Jesters: Brightly dressed clown, fool or buffoon (often part of a king or noble’s court, and could actually speak what others were only thinking) ▪ Minstrels Little servant Jongleurs o Assistant to the Minstrel or Troubador ▪ Often an apprentice in training Gleeman o A travelling entertainer of even lower rank than the Minstrel ▪ Troubadour Were more plished and petic musicians and performers than the minstrels o King Richard I “the Lionheart” of England o King Thibaut IV of Navarre o King Alfonso X of Castile and Leon ▪ Troubadours and the Courtly Love Tradition Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204 o Granddaughter of William IX of Aquitaine, the first great patron of the Troubadours in France o Her father William X continued to be a patron of the artistic music of the court Troubadours o Grew up surrounded by musicians, Minstrels, poets and Troubadours of the Courtly Love tradition. Eleanor of Aquitaine married King Henry II of England in 1152 o Brought the Troubadour and Courtly Love tradition to England and made it a part of court culture o One of its greatest patrons o Her son, King Richard I became an aristocratic troubadour o The Tournament: The Church’s Views ▪ The Church was against the Tournament Too unruly, violent and bloody Many were maimed, crippled or killed In one tournament, William Marshall’s helmet was so badly dented that he and to put his head on a blacksmiths anvil to have the dents hammered out to remove it  In some tournaments defeated knights had to give up their horse and armor Created both rich and impoverished knights Also opposed the general drunkenness and immorality of behavior of all.