medicine, health.pptx

What is medicine? Study of medicine, division of medicine and the role of the doctor. Josip Mišković, MD., PhD. The word Medicine Medicus - a physician. ars medicina Definition of Medicine Science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease. Medicine is… Rod (Staff) of Asclepius Hippocrattes Medicine: components • Science • Art (ars!): Practice, Skill, Technique • Most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). Medicine: tasks • Treatment and prevention • Rehabilitation • Improve health of “healthy” persons Medicine: Division • Theoretical (scientific knowledge) • Practical (application of scientific knowledge) Medicine: division by orientation • curative medicine • preventive medicine • social medicine Medicine: Branches different basis of name creation: • • • • Dealing Part of the body Group of patients Procedure Main Branches of Medicine • Basic sciences of medicine • Medical specialties • Interdisciplinary fields Basic sciences • • • • • Anatomy Biochemistry Biostatistics Cytology Embryology Basic sciences • • • • • • • • Epidemiology Genetics Histology Immunology Medical physics Microbiology Molecular biology Neuroscience Basic sciences • • • • • Nutrition science and dietetics Pathology Pharmacology Physiology Toxicology Specialties • There are many different specialties. • The development of a specialty is often driven by new technology • leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors Specialties • “Internal Medicine" and "Surgery.“ Surgery • uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition • manage pre-operative, postoperative, and potential surgical candidates Internal medicine • Deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. • According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied. • In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists“. Elsewhere such specialists are often called physicians. Diagnostic specialties • Clinical laboratory • Pathology as a medical specialty • Diagnostic radiology • Nuclear medicine • Clinical neurophysiology Other major specialties • Anesthesiology • Dermatology • Emergency medicine • Family medicine, family practice, general practice • Obstetrics and gynecology Other major specialties • • • • • • • Medical genetics Neurology Ophthalmology Pediatrics Physical medicine and rehabilitation Psychiatry Preventive medicine Medical specialties 1. Abdominal Surgery 16. Public Health Medicinetraumatology 2. Allergology and clinical 17. Cardiology 34. Otorhinolaryngology immunology 18. Cardiothoracic surgery35. Pathology 3. Anaesthesiology, 19. Clinical Pharmacology 36. andPaediatrics reanimatology and intensive toxicology 37. Plastic, reconstructive and care 20. Clinical Microbiology aesthetic surgery 4. Dermatology and venerology 21. Clinical radiology 38. Psychiatry 5. Child and adolescent 22. Laboratory immunology 39. Pulmology psychiatry 23. Maxillo-Facial Surgery 40. Rheumatology 6. Child surgery 24. Occupational and sport41. Forensic medicine 7. Epidemiology medicine 42. School and adolescent 8. Endocrinology and 25. Nephrology medicine Diabetology 26. Neurosurgery 43. Transfusion medicine 9. Physical medicine and 27. Neurology 44. Urology rehabilitation 28. Nuclear medicine 45. Vascular surgery 10. Gastroenterology 29. Ophthalmology and 11. Gynaecology and obstetrics optometrics 12. Haematology 30. Oncology and radiotherapy 13. Emergency medicine 31. General internal medicine 14. Infectology 32. General surgery 15. Internistic oncology 33. Orthopaedics and Interdisciplinary fields • • • • • • • • • • Aerospace medicine Medical ethics Biomedical Engineering Clinical pharmacology Disaster medicine Diving medicine Evolutionary medicine Forensic medicine Hospice and Palliative Medicine Laser medicine Interdisciplinary fields • • • • • • • • Medical humanities Health informatics Occupational medicine Sexual medicine Sports medicine Travel medicine Tropical medicine Wilderness medicine Conventional Medicine • Conventional (Western) Medicine – a system of medicine based on the application of the scientific method Conventional Medicine –Approach to Treatment: • Focuses on the causes of illness • Relies heavily on prevention, surgery and pharmaceuticals Definition: Evidence-Based Medicine “The practice of EBM includes the judicious integration of current best scientific literature, clinical experience and patient understanding and values.” Adapted from Guyatt et al. and Sackett et al. Three Dimensions of EBM Clinician training and experience Judicious Integration of science Patient preferences and values Guidelines: The Framework for EBM “Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and patient decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances.” – IOM ’92  Derived from…  10,000 RCTs annually  4,000 guidelines since 1989  2,500 periodicals in NLS Limitations of EBM “Evidence-based medicine in practice defines the likelihood of something happening. It is never 100%. It is not absolute truth. Evidence never tells you what to do. The same evidence applied in one case may not apply in another. The circumstances of the individual may be different, the circumstances may be the same but patients may refuse one treatment in favor of another. What evidence-based medicine does is inform one about what their best options are—but it doesn’t make the decision.” Brian Haynes MD, McMaster University at the Canadian Medical Association September 30, 2003 Reality: Providers Don’t Practice EBM… McGlynn et al “The Quality of Health Care Delivered to Adults in the United States” NEJM June 26, 2003 Condition % Recommended Care Received Condition % Recommended Care Received Senile Cataract 78.7 Asthma 53.5 Breast cancer 75.7 Benign prostatic hyperplasia 53.0 Prenatal Care 73.0 Hyperlipidemia 48.6 Low back pain 68.5 Diabetes mellitus 45.4 Coronary artery disease 68.0 Hypertension 64.7 Headache 45.2 Congestive heart failure 63.9 Urinary tract infection 40.7 Cerebrovascular disease 59.1 Community acquired pneumonia 39.0 Sexually transmitted diseases 36.7 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 58.0 Dyspepsia/peptic ulcer disease 32.7 Depression 57.7 Atrial fibrillation 24.7 Orthopedic conditions 57.2 Osteoarthritis 57.3 Hip fracture 22.7 Colorectal cancer 53.9 Alcohol dependence 10.5 The Providers of Conventional Medicine • Medical Doctors (MD) • Optometrists • Dentists • Allied health care professionals Traditional medicine • Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine and folk medicine. • They remain commonly used with or instead of scientific medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. Traditional medicine • Comprises knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the introduction of modern medicine. Traditional medicine: WHO definition • The sum total of the knowledge, skills, and practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness. Traditional medicine • In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs Traditional medicine • • • • • • • • Ayurveda Siddha medicine Ancient Iranian medicine Islamic medicine traditional Chinese medicine traditional Korean medicine Acupuncture traditional African medicine Traditional Chinese medicine • Harmonious flow of qi defines health • Primary treatments: Herbal remedies & Acupuncture • Herbal remedies- herbs, plant products, fungi, animal parts, minerals are used as medicines • Acupuncture-used to correct disturbances in the flow of qi by inserting needles through the skin at appropriate sites (meridians) Homeopathy Treating an individual with highly diluted substances hoping to trigger the body’s natural system of healing Traditional medicine • WHO "inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or dangerous effects" and that "further research is needed to ascertain the efficacy and safety" of several of the practices and medicinal plants used by traditional medicine systems. What Is Integrative Medicine? Wellness Basic CAM Science Patient literacy EvidenceCentered Care Based Cultural MedicinePower Sensitivity Of the Mind 42 Medical Education Requirements for enrollment ● Human – min age? ● 4 years of secundary education (matura or admission test) ● ● ● psychological testing? Letters or reccomendation CV Number of Medical Schools ● 2 334 in 180 countries ● UK – 32, GER – 41, Kina 176, USA 170 Requirements around the World ● MCAT (USA, Canada – 52,40,2,52) ● UKCAT, BMAT (UK) ● GMSAT (Australia) ● VESTIBULAR (Brazil) ● INDIA (AIPMT- 200, 120) ● FRANCE ● AUSTRIA Curriculum design Pre-clinical subjects Clinical subjects Problem (organ) based learning 5500 hours – EU standard UK (4-5 years), Sweden (5.5), Finland(6.5) i Belgium (7) First Year Program in Mostar •Medical Physics and Biophysics • Introduction to Medicine and History of Medicine •Medical Biology •Scientific Methodology and Medical Informatics •Anatomy •Medical Chemistry •Medical Ethics and Bioethics 1 •SES – The Basics of Communication Skills in Medical Practice •SES – Laboratory Diagnostics of Inflammation •SES – Development and Anomalies of the Head and Neck •SES – How to construct your own organ •SES – Contemporary Learning Methods Road to Graduation ● ● desire for knowledge readiness to change ones attitudes and accept new attitudes, as well as skills and general knowledge ● respect toward others ● courage to ask questiones ● will to educate others Degree accreditation ● State exams No Internship: Greece, Italy, Spain, Netherlands Belgium Internship - 18 months Germany, Portugal and Sweden; 12 months UK and Ireland Extra precautions: France, Finland, Austria, UK – MDs work 1-3 years under supervision To work as a GP: 2 years of practical work in Finland, Italy, Belgium, 2.5 France Medical specialties 1. Abdominal Surgery 16. Public Health Medicinetraumatology 2. Allergology and clinical 17. Cardiology 34. Otorhinolaryngology immunology 18. Cardiothoracic surgery35. Pathology 3. Anaesthesiology, 19. Clinical Pharmacology 36. andPaediatrics reanimatology and intensive toxicology 37. Plastic, reconstructive and care 20. Clinical Microbiology aesthetic surgery 4. Dermatology and venerology 21. Clinical radiology 38. Psychiatry 5. Child and adolescent 22. Laboratory immunology 39. Pulmology psychiatry 23. Maxillo-Facial Surgery 40. Rheumatology 6. Child surgery 24. Occupational and sport41. Forensic medicine 7. Epidemiology medicine 42. School and adolescent 8. Endocrinology and 25. Nephrology medicine Diabetology 26. Neurosurgery 43. Transfusion medicine 9. Physical medicine and 27. Neurology 44. Urology rehabilitation 28. Nuclear medicine 45. Vascular surgery 10. Gastroenterology 29. Ophthalmology and 11. Gynaecology and obstetrics optometrics 12. Haematology 30. Oncology and radiotherapy 13. Emergency medicine 31. General internal medicine 14. Infectology 32. General surgery 15. Internistic oncology 33. Orthopaedics and Road to specialties in B&H ● Study length 6 points ● Average grade ● Awards (dean's, rector's, academy) ● ● Doctorate ● ● CC papers ● ● Congress participation Active knowledge of 2 foreign languages Primary care work Work in state required(special) areas. Burnout sindrom ● ● ● Feeling of being emotionaly burned out, deperonalisation, low selfesteem occurs after chronical stress of constant studying frequency: st 10-21 % 1 year, rd up to 40% 3+ year Doctors of medicine in HNZ 945 licensed Health instituons: •Primary care •Secondary care •Tertiary care •Institutes for public health No. of Doctors in EU UK 241 146 GER 348 695 Spain 169 319 FBIH 5128 RS 2530 A PROFESSIONAL Deﬁnition • a : engaged in one of the learned professions • b (1) : characterized by or conforming to the technical or ethical standards of a profession (2) : exhibiting a courteous, conscientious, and generally businesslike manner in the workplace (3): having a particular profession as a permanent career <a professional soldier> Merriam‐Webster Dictionary Profession Definition • a : a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation • b : a principal calling, vocation, or employment • c : the whole body of persons engaged in a calling Merriam‐Webster Dictionary Medical Profession • The ﬁrst phase of a profession in reaching full professional autonomy is public afirmation and professional control of the members of the profession Specific characteristics of a profession • A profession sets its own standards of education and preparation for practice • Students of a certain profession go through a more rigorous specialization than students of other vocations • Professional practice is usually accredited by a certain form of a licence • Licencing institutions are run by members of the profession Specific characteristics of a profession • Most legal regulations related to the profession are shaped by members of the profession. • Since a profession also implies high income, power and prestige, it is very selective in accepting students • Members of the profession are more ﬁrmly identiﬁed and attached to their profession than people with other vocations. Medical doctors as a “pure” profession: 1. clearly deﬁned education 2. subject to sanctions 3. The public can easily identify medical doctors 4. Professional organization 5. Code of Ethics Title • A title concisely testiﬁes to profession, degree and type of the carrier’s education, and the vocation the carrier performs • Symbols, signs and titles are used for inner and outer identiﬁcation of a • preindustrial profession.society – medieval nobility titles had a stratiﬁcational role •Identiﬁcation is done on few levels: 1.Identiﬁcation with professional title and ideology of a profession 2.Identiﬁcation with the mode of practice which is characteristic for a profession 3.Identiﬁcation with organizational or institutional position of the profession 4.Identiﬁcation with the social position of the profession. Spelling titles in Medicine general rule: titles acquired by diplomas/certificates – after the name honorific (academic) titles – before the Croatian English name Meaning Ime Prezime, dr. med. Name Surname, MD Doctor/Physician Ime Prezime, dr. med., mag. Name Surname, MD, MA Master of Arts mr. sc. Ime Prezime, dr. med. Name Surname, MD, MSc Master of Science dr. sc. Ime Prezime, dr. med. Name Surname, MD, PhD doc. dr. sc. Ime Prezime, dr. med. Ass. prof. Name Surname, MD, PhD Prof. Name Surname, MD, PhD Doctor of Philosophy Assistan professor prof. dr. sc. Ime Prezime, dr. med. prim. Ime Prezime, dr. med. Ime Prezime, dr. med., spec. obiteljske medicine Primarius Name Surname, MD, PhD Name Surname, MD, family physicain Other Terms Stažist Intern Specijalizant Resident Professor Primarius Specialits Professional organization Creating a professional organization is important for the process of professionalization and is often the ﬁrst step in professionalization of an occupation. The purpose and goals 1.Oversight of the professional recruitment 2.Ensuring the quality of professional education 3.Protecting the monopoly of the professional scope of activity, etc. Doctors of medicine in HNZ 945 licensed Health instituons: •Primary care •Secondary care •Tertiary care •Institutes for public health The World Medical Association • international organization representing physicians. (WMA) • To ensure the independence of physicians, • to work for the highest possible standards of ethical behaviour and care by physicians WMA This was particularly important to physicians after the Second World War, and therefore the WMA has always been an independent confederation of free professional associations. Funding has been by the annual contributions of its members, which has now grown to 95 National Medical Associations. WMA provides a forum for its member associations to communicate freely, • to co-‐operate actively, • to achieve consensus on high standards of medical ethics and professional competence • to promote the professional freedom of physicians worldwide. WMA: The International Code of Medical Ethics Duties: GENERAL - strive to use health care resources in the best way to benefit patients and their community TO PATIENTS - not enter into a sexual relationship with his/her current patient or into any other abusive or exploitative relationship TO COLLEAGUES - behave towards colleagues as he/she would have them behave towards him/her World Medical Association in 1949, amended in 1968, 1983 and 2006. The practice of medicine is legally limited • Medical degree – license to treat since 9th century is mandatory • Legal limitations for the practice of medicine in many countries – e.g. USMLE in USA • Local authorities for regulation and supervision (ANTSZ) • Medical boards for subdivisions of clinical branches What is a physician? Webster’s Dictionary Physician: • (1) a person legally qualified to practice medicine and • (2) one who is skilled in the art of healing Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician • A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor is a person who holds a medical degree, practices medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease and injury. • This is accomplished through a detailed knowledge of anatomy, physiology, diseases and treatment— the science of medicine — and its applied practice — the art or craft of medicine. Attributes of the Physician as Healer and Professional Caring / compassion Insight Openness Respect for the healing function Respect patient dignity / autonomy Presence /Accompany Competence Commitment Confidentiality Altruism Trustworthy Integrity / Honesty codes of ethics Morality / Ethical Behavior Responsibility to profession Autonomy Self-regulation associations institutions Responsibility to society Team work respect for team Based on the Literatur Clinician The clinician role forms the core medical competency and forms the major part of your learning experience. The formal objectives include: – obtain a complete history and perform a physical examination – knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to identify persons at risk – diagnose, and to initiate appropriate management – obtain and record, on paper and electronic format, patient information – develop learning strategies Professionalism • a commitment to: –patients, –health professionals –society Manager • administering components of the health system • Objectives – understanding health – considering appropriate use of health care resources Health Advocate • Respond to individual patient health needs and issues as part of patient care; • Respond to the health needs of the communities that they serve; • Identify the determinants of health of the populations that they serve; • Promote the health of individual patients, communities and populations. Scholar Role • acquire and apply evidence-based concepts and knowledge to clinical cases; • access and critically appraise the appropriate information and literature • effectively facilitate the learning of persons or groups Communicator Communication is central to the art of medicine. • establish therapeutic, patient-centered communication through shared decisionmaking; • achieve effective interactions • convey information appropriately Collaborator Medicine must be practiced as a team venture. • knowledge of the roles, skills and responsibilities of other members of the health care team; • the ability to work effectively and to share decision-making in an interprofessional team; • the ability to access community resources for the benefit of patients. Person Physician, first know thyself. • identify and appreciate the determinants of health • identify strategies and resources to promote health and well being • apply skills and strategies to promote personal and professional health and well being. CODE OF MEDICAL ETHICS AND DEONTOLOGY 1. It is an honorable duty imposed upon medical doctors to make saving human life their priority and work and live protecting it at all times. 2. Thus all medical doctors must have respect for human life from its beginning until its end, promote health, act to prevent and treat illnesses and show respect for human body and each person’s identity before and after 3.Medical doctors will not discriminate against patients allowing any patient’s age, gender, race, nationality, religion, political views, social standing or any other criterion to aﬀect their relationship and will treat patients with respect to their human rights and dignity. 4.Medical doctors will do their best to cherish the tradition of their noble profession by practicing medicine in accordance with the highest standards of care, profession and ethics in the relationship with patients, their relatives, others close to them and people in good health. 5.Medical doctors have a duty to protect the reputation and dignity of medical profession and treat their colleagues with respect. 6.Medical doctors are obligated to use their knowledge and skill responsibly and in compliance with the principles established in this Code at all times. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood Universal Declaration of Human Rights Professionalis m • Professional autonomy of physicians entails responsibility and a well-developed system of rules governing the behaviour of a physician. • Madrid Declaration Declaration of Geneva (Physician's Oath) At the time of being admitted as a member of the medical profession: I solemnly pledge to consecrate my life to the service of humanity; I will give to my teachers the respect and gratitude that is their due; I will practice my profession with conscience and dignity; The health of my patient will be my first consideration; I will respect the secrets that are confided in me, even after the patient has died; I will maintain by all the means in my power, the honour and the noble traditions of the medical profession; My colleagues will be my sisters and brothers; I will not permit considerations of age, disease or disability, creed, ethnic origin, gender, nationality, political affiliation, race, sexual orientation, social standing or any other factor to intervene between my duty and my patient; I will maintain the utmost respect for human life; I will not use my medical knowledge to violate human rights and civil liberties, even under threat; I make these promises solemnly, freely and upon my honour. WMA Declaration of Lisbon on the Rights of the Patient • Every person is entitled without discrimination to appropriate medical care. • The patient has the right to choose freely and change his/her physician and hospital or health service institution, regardless of whether they are based in the private or public sector. • The patient has the right to refuse to participate in research or the teaching of medicine. • If the patient is unconscious or otherwise unable to express his/her will, informed consent must be obtained whenever possible, from a legally entitled representative. • The patient has the right to receive information about himself/herself recorded in any of his/her medical records, and to be fully informed about his/her health status including the medical facts about his/her condition. World Medical Association in 1981, amended in 1995, 2001. Confidential ity • foundation of the diagnostic and therapeutic process. • It allows the patient to freely say all information concerning his illness or injury Development of Doctor Patient relationship • Paternalistic model – patient depends on the doctor's authority. • During the second half of the twentieth century the backbone of the relationship is shared decision making. Informed consent • a process for getting permission before conducting a healthcare intervention • according to guidelines from the fields of medical ethics and research ethics. History of Informed consent • 1947. – Nuremberg Code • 1957. – USA case law • 1964. – Declaration of Helsinki • 1997. – Introduced in Croatian Law • 2004. – Patient Protection Act Croatia Will a patient trust me as I am only a student? Students may feel insecure about their role in the treatment of patients. The basis for trust building is the knowledge that a student started a relationship with honest and sincere intentions. Honesty is crucial – let the patients know that you're a student training to become a doctor. The patient may feel closeness to the student and realize that his participation is important for the society. HEALTH Dimension and Determinants of Health • To an anatomist Healthy body means it should confirm to normal anatomical structures. • To a physiologist Health means normal body functions • To a biochemist It means normal biochemical levels / values • To a pathologist It means normal cellular make up. • To a psychiatrist It means well adjusted and a balanced personality English Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. WHO Definition of Health: https://apps.who.int/aboutwho/en/definition.html ·measuring health in a negative sense. ·"5 d s“ • death, • disease, • discomfort, • disability, • dissatisfaction. Holistic view to a health recognizes the inter relatedness of the physical, psychological, emotional, social, spiritual, and environmental factors that contribute to the overall quality of a person s life ● Two aspects of health can be distinguished: 1) Subjective – it is formed by sensations and feelings of a person, 2) Objective – its basis is formed by objective parameters obtained by measurement of strutures and functions of a person Subjective and objective aspects of a health can differ find Positive cosequence of WHO definition of health: – change of health care phylosophy Classic phylosophy: Diseased person doctor diagnosis therapy Modern phylosophy health promotion healthy person health protection prevention of disease onset and development Two dimensions of health according Nordenfeld (1986) ● health is defined by set of objective, measurable parameters of structure and functions of the body ● health is defined also by set of subjective parameters expressed by healthy person ● In health there is freedom. Health is the first of all liberties! The Health Triangle • Health is the measure of our body’s efficiency and over-all well-being. • The health triangle is a measure of the different aspects of health. The Health Triangle Review • There are 3 major areas of the health triangle: physical, mental and social. • Good decision making and healthy choices reduce the risk of disease and increase health overall. FACTORS AFFECTING Health and Illness • Physical Dimension • Emotional Dimension • Intellectual Dimension • Environmental Dimension • Sociocultural Dimension • Spiritual Dimension Physical Health It means adequate body weight, height and circumference as per age and sex with acceptable level of – vision, – hearing, – locomotion or movements, – acceptable levels of pulse rate, – blood pressure, – respiratory rate, – chest circumference, – head circumference, – waist hip ratio. Physical Health • • • • • exercise, nutrition, sleep, alcohol & drugs, and weight management. Physical Health Exercise Physical Health Nutrition Physical Health Sleep Physical Health Alcohol & Drugs Physical Health Weight Management Mental health The positive dimension of mental health is stressed in WHO’s definition of health as contained in its constitution. Mental Health • Mental health encompasses learning, stress management, and mental illnesses or disorders. Mental Health Learning Mental Health Stress Management Mental Health Mental Disorders Social Health • Social Health deals with the way react with people within our environment. • This includes: public health, family relationships, and peer relationships. Social wellbeing It is the third dimension of health. • ability of a person to adjust with others in his social life, at home, at work place and with people. Social wellbeing can be measured on scale by taking in to consideration of indicators like income, literacy and occupation. Social Health Public Health Social Health Family Relationships Social Health Peer Relationships Determinants of health Heredity Environment  Physical, social, biological and manmade Health Behavior  Actions  Habits  Reactions  Belief, attitudes  Practices (Lifestyles) Health services  Promotive, preventive, curative, rehabilitative Environment The environment is considered to be the most important determinant and input of health. Man made environment Health is influenced in the man made environment or artificial environment. Health services • • • • Availability, Accessibility, Affordability Acceptability Promoting Health Preventing Illness • Risk Factors: – – – – – – Age Genetics Physiologic Health habits Lifestyle Environment Levels of Preventative Care • Primary preventative care • Secondary preventive care • Tertiary preventative care What is meant by “the right to health”? • “The right to health does not mean the right to be healthy, nor does it mean that poor governments must put in place expensive health services for which they have no resources. But it does require governments and public authorities to put in place policies and action plans which will lead to available and accessible health care for all in the shortest possible time. To ensure that this happens is the challenge facing both the human rights community and public health professionals.” Commissioner United Nations High for Human Criteria to evaluate the right to health: (a)Availability. (b)Accessibility. • • • • Non-discrimination; Physical accessibility; Economic accessibility; Information accessibility. Criteria to evaluate the right to health: (c) Acceptability. (d) Quality. The World Health Organisation (WHO) WHO • The World Health Organization • Its objective is ‘the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health’. Core functions of the WHO The WHO’s core functions are to: • Providing leadership and creating partnerships to improve health. • Managing information and promoting research • Setting norms and standards • Assisting with policy selection • Providing technical support and assisting health systems to become sustainable • Monitor health trends WHO’s achievements Some example of projects that WHO has been responsible for are: • International classification of disease. In 1948 the WHO took over the responsibility for international classification of disease which is used to classify diseases and other health problems and had become the international standard used for clinical purposes. Some example of projects that WHO has been responsible for are: • The WHO Framework for Tobacco Control. In 2003 the WHO adopted this global strategy to address the growing burden of disease from non communicable disease such as cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes and cancer. Some example of projects that WHO has been responsible for are: • The WHO programs help to provide emergency relief where and when it is needed, providing resources such as food, shelter, health services and clean water. This assistance helps to restore and save lives and reduce the impact of the crisis on the health of affected individuals and communities.

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