Media, Culture & Society PDF

Media, culture & society Week 2: The reality paradox: Philosophy@Media Lecture Reality paradox → three meanings 1. Quantum mechanics: The behaviour of matter (at a microscopic level) is unpredictable, subject to chance. This is paradoxical to our everyday experience of the physical worl...

Media, culture & society Week 2: The reality paradox: Philosophy@Media Lecture Reality paradox → three meanings 1. Quantum mechanics: The behaviour of matter (at a microscopic level) is unpredictable, subject to chance. This is paradoxical to our everyday experience of the physical world. 2. Multiverse theories: the idea that there are multiple versions of reality, depending on the choices we make and the outcomes we experience. 3. One Philosophical interpretation: the realization that our perception of reality is subjective and may not correspond to the objective world. Implications these ideas have for the study of media and society Reality is a social construct ○ Our perception of the world is shaped by language, culture, and societal norms, creating multiple realities - truths; e.g. ‘fake news’, ‘post-truth’ Subjective experience is ‘real’ ○ The realization that our perception of the world depends on our sensory apparatus, creates the possibility that there are other realities that we cannot access; e.g. the matrix (film) The world of the mind (consciousness) vs. the sensations of the body (physicality) ○ There exists in our everyday lives a tension - paradoxical relationship - between the inner self and the outer reality, creating questions about the nature of consciousness and free will; e.g. encapsulate in Descartes’ cogito, ergo sum - I think, therefore I am. Three schools of thought about ‘knowledge’ - theory and research- from philosophy of science* 1. Uncertainty principle: the idea that we cannot know both the position and momentum of a particle, leading to inherent uncertainty in our measurements. 2. Observer effect: the realization that the act of observing a system affects its behavior, challenging our understanding of objectivity and subjectivity. 3. Theories of knowledge (epistemology): the insight that how we go about gaining knowledge - research methods into the physical and social world around us - affects what we find out. * Alan Chalmers (philosopher) notes three dimensions to claims that facts are the basis of scientific research: “(a) facts are directly given to careful, unprejudiced observers via the senses; (b) facts are prior and independent of theory; ( c) facts constitute a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge” (chalmers, 2013:4) Chalmers then proceeds to question these three assumptions: (a) seeing is not believing; (b) what we see is “not determined solely by the object viewed”: (c ) what we often take to be “observable facts” are statements of fact (true or false). (chalmers 2013: 4-11) Donna Haraway (philosopher) goes even further: she argues that both “science and popular culture are intricately woven of fact and fiction... deeds as opposed to words, are the parents of facts.. human action is at the root of what we see as a fact...fiction can be true, known to be true by an appeal to nature..... fiction’s kinship to facts is close, but they are not identical twins. Facts are opposed to opinion, to prejudice, but not to fiction... scientific practice may be considered a kind of story-telling practice” (Haraway 1989; 3-4, 6) Reflection points (refer to the mandatory reading, and also suggested readings) Philosophical - theoretical - questions ○ What is the relationship between our perceptions and (our knowledge of) the “objective” world? Empirical implications ○ How can different sociocultural realities co-exist in a world dominated by globalized media? Social and cultural examples Technological impacts: the rapid pace of technological change challenges accepted understandings of what reality is in terms of what can be seen as truth (e.g. virtual realities, second life, holograms) Cultural diversity: the realization that different cultures have different realities and ways of experiencing the world, creating the possibility for misunderstanding and conflicts. Truth/ propaganda/ fake news vs. journalism: the use of information and disinformation to shape public perception and create new realities, challenging our understanding of objectivity and subjectivity. The case of climate change - fact or fiction? Planet Earth’s average temperature is rising. What - or who - are the main causes of this “climate change”? Or is this a naturally occurring phenomenon over time (millions of years) or the last couple of centuries “as a result of human activities” (Cubasch et al 2013: 121)? According to Greta Thunberg (school strike for climate/Fridays for future), any top-level meetings are simply “blah blah blah” “Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather. Over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified,. And that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer” (cubasch et al 2013: 126, emphasis added) Global warming refers to a particular effect of human-made (fossil fuels, and other “natural” occurrences over time that have led to an increase in the core temperature of the “greenhouse effect” that keeps planet earth habitable: e.g. cars, factories, large-scale farming, pollution, deforestation, population growth (e.g. megacities), large scale agriculture (from beef to soybeans) Empirical indicators - observed “facts” The main indicators for climate scientists are Sea levels (rising or lowering): e.g. rose by an average of 0.17 mm in the 20thc, predicted to rise 28-79 mm in the next century (2007 projection): last decade level rising higher, 3.1mm per year Levels of precipitation (rainfall, aridity): e.g. water vapor Temperature (rising, lowering): e.g. warmer in 20th c than 19th, 0,74% rise: this past summer in Europe has been nearly 2% higher than previous years global warming term for the main symptom: the rise in earth’s average temperature either by a “natural greenhouse effect” and/or human-induced -anthropogenic- processes Intergovernmental efforts to combat climate change International attention to global warming/climate change issues goes back to the Rio earth summit 1992: UN member states try to agree on ways to reduce carbon emissions, pollution 1992 Rio Summit and the UN framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC) 1997 Kyoto Protocol - basic principles for treaty on worldwide cut on greenhouse gas emissions; 2001 ratified in Bonn though not by US president George W. Bush and without developing countries or some major polluters (55% of UN member states (186) signed) Since then, india and China rapidly industrializing, urbanizing, and increasing income (middle classes) so need to be on board. But so does the USA whose carbon emissions are also increasing: binding targets without big hitters somewhat undermined Whilst 36 developed economies signed up decreased their emissions, global emissions continued to rise this time Outcomes - a treaty and scientific committee UNFCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) - the international treaty agreed to in Rio de Janeiro (1992) to bring nations into line to combat greenhouse gases IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) provides scientific support to the UNFCCC and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol (that made agreements for developed countries legally binding). Outcomes of its reports since 1988 influence international negotiations, public opinion, and policy-making at home and abroad - methodology is a comprehensive literature review of scientific publications - source of much scientific debate let alone political polemic, and data-hacking scandals (see The Trick, 2021 tv film on the climategate scandal) The 2015 UN climate conference (COP 2021) claims that victory with the “Paris Climate Agreement” 2017 trump administration announces VS withdrawal from the Paris Agreement (effective from 2020, overturned by President Biden) 2018 IPCC report - “on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty” (IPCC 2018) Media and political responses; UN member-states / Paris agreement signatories have to agree to cut ‘greenhouse gas’ emissions sooner. “Twelve years to act or we will face catastrophic climate change” (BMJ 2018;363:k4410) Global rise in temperature must not exceed 1.5 C as predicted in the next 12 years. “Republican lawmakers react to the IPCC report - “we have scientists too!” (nuccitelli, the guardian 2018) “Even a slight increase in global warming could be catastrophic, experts warn” (Wernick, PRI, 2018) The climate is Political and so is climate science: successive US admiinistrations as case in point* 2006 - former US vice-president Al Gore - “Our climate crisis may, at times, appear to be happening slowly, but in fact, it is happening very quickly- and has become a true planetary emergency. The Chinese expression for crisis consists of two characters. The first is a symbol for danger; the second is a symbol for opportunity.” (2006, An Inconvenient Truth (book, film, concert)) 2018 - former US president Donald Trump - “I think something’s happening, something changing and it’ll change back again … I don’t know that it’s man-made.” (Newsweek 2018) 2021 - US President Joe Biden - apologizes for the Trump administration’s oppositional stance towards climate change/ crisis in his opening speech to the UN climate change conference in Glasgow *USA is one of the world's top carbon emitters (of greenhouse gases) along with China, India, Russian federation, and Japan “Listen to the science” (Greta Thunberg) But what if the data (facts) and theories (“stories”) are flawed? The case of “climategate” (2009) Claims that a reputable Climatic Research center in the UK (university of East Anglia) covered up ‘flawed’ data in compiled statistics of temperature changes that support the case for global warming. Emails of Professor Phil Jones were hacked, and then a redacted document set of selected emails was leaked to the press: purportedly showing how staff were attempting to repress the statistical discrepancies. The centre refused to comply with freedom of information requests from journalists.  The furor cast doubt on key data used in the UN IPCC reports about the speed of global warming/ climate change and its impact on natural and human-built environments - was used by climate change skeptics - academics subjected to hate mail and public criticism - leading to researchers losing their jobs. Summing up: back to this week’s authors. 1. Chalmers: “Further difficulties concerning the reliability of the observational basis of science arise from some of how judgments about the adequacy of observation statements draw on presupposed knowledge in a way that renders those judgments fallible” (2013;14) 2. Haraway: “The point of my argument is that natural sciences, like human sciences, are inextricably within the processes that gave them birth. And so, like the human sciences, the natural sciences are culturally and historically specific, modified, and involved. They matter to real people. It makes sense to ask what stakes, methods, and kinds of authority are involved in natural scientific accounts, and how they differ, for example, from religion or ethnography... the detached eye of objective science is an ideological fiction, and a powerful one” (1989: 12-13) Readings Chalmers, A. (2013). Chapter 1: science as knowledge derived from the facts of experience in what is this thing called science? University of Queensland Press. Key concepts and overview A common view of science: science is often perceived as knowledge derived directly from observable facts. Objective of the chapter: critically examine the assumptions behind the notion that science is simply derived from facts. Galileo’s approach: emphasized building theories based on observed facts rather than preconceived ideas Historical perspective: modern science began to take shape in the 17th century when observation was prioritized over authority Schools of thought Empiricists and positivists: ○ Empiricists (e.g., Locke, Berkeley, Hume) believed all knowledge comes from sensory experiences. ○ Positivists, including logical positivists, sought to formalize the connection between observational facts and scientific knowledge. Investigating the nature of facts Three assumptions about facts: ○ (a) facts are directly given to observers through senses  ○ (b) facts are independent of theory ○ (c ) facts provide a reliable foundation for scientific knowledge Challenges to these assumptions: each has limitations and can only be true under qualified conditions Seeing is believing? Discussion limited to the sense of sight for simplicity Human eye function: analogs to a camera but differs in how images are processed by the brain Importance of background and expectations: The observer’s experiences and prior knowledge can influence visual perception Visual experience and perception Perceptual variability: visual experiences can be influenced by cultural background, knowledge, and expectation ○ Examples: reversible figures (e.g., staircase drawing), children's picture puzzles Scientific observation: competent observation in science often requires training and experience Observable facts as statements Facts vs. perception: the distinction between objective facts and subjective perceptions Role of conceptual framework: observers need a framework to interpret observations, as seen in learning examples (e.g., children learning language, novices learning microscopy) Why facts cannot precede theory Interdependence of facts and theory: knowledge guides the search for facts, which in turn can confirm or refute that knowledge. Knowledge -dependence of observation statements: acknowledging that observation requires a prior understanding The fallibility of observation statements Historical examples: show how perceptions were once mistaken due to lack of knowledge or technology (e.g., the motion of the earth, planetary size observation) Interdependence of knowledge and facts: facts and knowledge support and refine each other over time Conclusion Challenges to secure observational basis: perceptions and observation statements may be influenced by prior knowledge and expectations Haraway, D. (1992, first published 1989), chapter 1: introduction: The Persistence of Visions: gender, race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science. london , new york. Key themes and questions Exploration of how love, power, and science intertwine in the construction of nature in the late twentieth century Examination of what counts as nature for late industrial people and the forms love of nature takes in particular contexts. Historical contexts in which nature is constructed as an object of desire The impact of race, gender, and cultural traditions on science and knowledge The role of primates (monkeys and apes) in the history of modern sciences and cultures Monkeys and apes as cultural and scientific figures Monkeys and apes bridge nature and culture in Western societies Scientific and commercial interest in primates reflects a complex traffic of meanings Primatology, combining narratives, politics, myth, economics, and technical possibilities Primatologists are influenced by their own histories and cultures Primates and primatologists have diverse audiences including museums, media, and multiple scientific fields Primates as models for human problems and existential questions Facts and fiction in science and culture Science and popular culture interwoven with fact and fiction The dichotomy and kinship between fact (rooted in experience) and fiction (rooted in vision and invention) Science as a narrative, storytelling practice, producing ‘facts’ from human action Biology as a historical, narrative discourse akin to romantic literature Primatology is a storytelling craft, that addresses taxonomic order and dualisms (sex/ gender, nature/ culture) The role of narratives in science Science as a practice of narration and interpretation Scientific practice produces and is embedded in specific stories and metaphors Primatology stories involve complex narratives about human and primate relations The importance of storytelling in scientific practice and its implications for understanding nature and culture Science and Cultural Critique Science can be critiqued on cultural and political levels, not just factual. The intersection of science with issues of race, gender, and power The dualism of sex/ gender and nature/ culture involved in scientific narratives Examination of Scientific Disciplines from feminist and anti-racist Perspectives Primatology as a historical and cultural practice Examination of the history of primate studies in Western (predominantly US and European) contexts The influence of Judeo-Christian themes and narratives in primatology  Western primatology as a form of ‘Simian Orientalism’, constructing Western identity through the ‘other’ of primates Science fiction and scientific narratives The narrative field of SF (speculative fiction) as a space for cultural reproduction SF’s role in envisioning new forms of social imagination and relationships The intersection of scientific narratives with speculative fiction Methodological temptations and challenges Different methodological approaches to understanding the social construction of scientific knowledge: ○ Social studies of science and technology ○ Marxist tradition and standpoints ○ Scientist’s perspectives ○ Feminist and anti-racist critiques The challenge of integrating multiple perspectives without succumbing to one dominant narrative Conclusion: reimagining relationships Encouragement to rethink and rewrite scientific narratives Invitation for readers to engage actively and critically with the stories of primates and their implications for human knowledge and relationships with nature. Further reading Lovink, G. (2012). What is the social in social media? Key Headlines from 2012 Facebook’s influence on hiring decisions and social behavior Privacy concerns, especially among women Emotional impact on users, including signs of depression Instances of online behavior leading to legal consequences The historical context of ‘social in IT’ Origin of the concept “social” in cybernatics and groupware Friedrich Kittler’s dismissal of ‘social’ in computing Holistic view: computers as tools for personal liberation Pre-dot-com era: computing seen as collaborative tools Evolution of computer networks Chris Chester's analysis: ○ From social network analysis to actor-network theory ○ Focus shift from groups to individual empowerment in networks 1990s: growth in computing power, facilitating networking Baudrillard and the disappearance of ‘the social’ Social implosion into media, away from traditional political masses The “social question” remains unresolved but feels neutralized Impact of the global economic downturn on the resurgence of social concerns The role of social media today Social media: an extension of social interaction in a networked form Questions about the sincerity and depth of online social connections The shift from traditional social roles (family, church) to network identities Social media’s influence and challenges The duality of online networking as communal yet individualistic Potential for social media to solve problems of isolation and boredom The “social swarming” concept: decentralized, network-based activism Critiques and theories Hardt and Negri on unconscious slavery to social media The necessity of understanding the media’s role in shaping social interactions The importance of integrating critical humanities with computer science The ‘social’ as networked interaction Impact of social media on the traditional social fabric The “reciprocal spaces” of social media prompt engagement and interaction The transition from passive consumption to active participation The future of social media Potential for the “social” to evolve beyond current platforms like Facebook and Twitter The role of data mining and algorithmic analysis in shaping online interactions The challenge of maintaining meaningful interactions in a vast digital network Concluding thoughts Social media is both a reflection of and a departure from traditional social structures The ongoing search for a meaningful synthesis of online and offline social life Need for continued academic and practical inquiry into social media’s impact. Week 3: “culture as essential” and “media as the devil” Lecture Recap week 2 Key assumptions we make in research: Ontology - what is reality? ○ (e.g., is there an ultimate reality about climate change/ global warming?) Epistemology - what is knowledge? Why is reality understood/ studied this way? ○ (e.g., why do we study climate change? Can we objectively understand climate change?) ○ Is knowledge opbjective / subjective? If we do research are we changing the reality? Methodology - how do we reach the knowledge? ○ (e.g., how do we collect data and analyze data to best understand climate change?) ○ If I believe that ontology and epistemology are true, i also believe in methodology. ○ These 3 are a match, they are aligned ○ When you do research you are creating a reality Positivism → specific way of learning social reality → we are capable of objective interpretation of the world and social science should follow the methodologies and methods established in natural science, at least so far as it is concerned with empirical evidence and experimentation. Positivism is a research paradigm → it is a specific way of doing research. Auguste Comte → French philosopher Emile Durkheim → French sociologist Auguste Comte & Emile Durkhelm = forefathers of positivism research Relevant theories: Agenda-setting theory Media effects (hypodermic needle) Cultural adaption theory Cultural essentialism → a system of belief grounded in a conception of human beings as ‘cultural’ (and under certain conditions territorial and national) subjects, i.e. bearers of a culture, located within a boundary world, which defines them and differentiates them from others. Cultural essentialism → you believe there are specific cultures that have specific characteristics. (if you are Dutch, you are forever Dutch, if you are Chinese, you are forever Chinese) you will have forever the cultural characteristics. National cultures have boundaries. Very common narrative The example of Huntington’s theory clash of civilizations The fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and the domestic source of conflict will be cultural… (p.22) The West versus the rest: western ideas of individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism, human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law, democracy, free markets, and the separation of church and state, often have little resonance in Islamic, Confucian, Japanese, Hindu, Buddhist, or Orthodox cultures. (p.40) … the likelihood of violence between ukrainians and russians should be low. They are two Slavic, primarily Orthodox peoples who have had close relationships with each other for centuries. (p. 38) Theories can have implications and consequences: Huntington’s understanding of the relationship between culture(s) and society has negative social (media representations) and intellectual implications as demonstrated in Abrahamian’s article. He categorized the world into nine civilizations, arguing that the fault lines between them would shape international relations and serve as the driving force of conflict in the post-cold war world. Western Latin american Islamic African Orthodox Hindu Buddhist Sonic japanese Clash of civilizations → there are 9 civilizations. Artificial way of dividing the world Argument: fundamental differences exist between these people and how they see the world. This will clash. If we have another world war, it will be around these civilizations. Technological determinism → is a reductionist theory that presupposes that technology steers society, both in terms of the development of the social structure as moral and cultural values. There are “strong” and “weak” determinist visions within this stream. Strong technological determinism Weak technological determinism It is a spectrum, you choose where you are McLuhan’s theories on media technologies’ social impact Hot media ○ ‘High definition’ because they are rich in sensory data ○ E.g., print, photographs, radio, and movies Cool media ○ ‘Low definition’ because they provide less sensory data and consequently demand more participation or ‘completion’ by the audience ○ E.g., speech, cartoons, the telephone, and television There are still debates about whether McLuhan’s theory should be categorized as technological determinism. So don’t be surprised if you hear otherwise. His theories on the hot and cool media should also be understood in the context of the 1960’s, when many of the mentioned media technologies were different from today. McLuhan → he shaped how we understand media fundamentally. Postman’s theories on media technologies’ social impact Print media offer rational, serious engagement with local issues. This rationality is undermined by the telegraph and television. … information glut, information incoherence, information meaninglessness… we have transformed into a form of garbage and ourselves into garbage collectors… we have lost our sense of narrative in our lives which is always what helps people to know what to do with the information. McLuhan vs Postman main difference McLuhan more optimistic, and Postman more pessimistic (Amusing ourselves to death, The disappearance of childhood, The surrender of culture to technology) They both believe that media and technology are determining factors in our society. Dating apps; McLuhan → ? Postman → changed how people interect, surrender your relationships to media, losing your ability to meet strangers (losing autonomy); dating apps will change the way we see relationships, ‘hook-up culture’ → decrease sexual morality. Try to understand the reality → e.g. how many people have found a long-term relationship via dating apps? Pros & cons of positivism The positivist approach to research and the world is not necessarily ‘bad’ or ‘outdated’, nor is it ‘superior’. It depends on the research goals and research questions. There is also positivist research done in an informative, critical, and meaningful manner. They are aslo done poorly. Readings Abrahamian, E. (2003). Us media, Huntington, and September 11. Third World Quarterly, 24(3), 529–544 Overview Author: Ervand Abrahamian Published in: Third World Quarterly, vol. 24, no.3, 2003 Focus: analysis of how US mainstream media framed the September 11 attacks using Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ theory. Key themes Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ Huntington’s theory was initially dismissed by academics but gained traction post-September 11 The theory suggests global conflicts are centered around cultural and religious differences, especially between Islam and the West. Media’s adoption of Huntington’s framework US mainstream media largely framed the 9/11 attacks in terms of Islam and cultural conflicts. Newspapers like the New York Times used language and imagery emphasizing Islam in the context of the attacks. Media outlets avoided political explanations, particularly the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The framing served to simplify complex geopolitical issues into cultural and religious narratives. Criticism and alternative views Many scholars and historians criticized Huntington’s simplistic view, emphasizing the role of states and realpolitik over cultural explanations. Critics argue that Huntington’s views echo outdated ideas of social Darwinism and fear of ‘the other’. Middle East specialists argue that specific political contexts, like arab nationalism and the Palestine issue, are more relevant. Backlash and political implications The portrayal of the crisis in cultural terms led to a backlash against Muslims in the US.  Political figures and media often ignore or downplay the role of US foreign policy in the Middle East. Implications for the public and academia Impact on public perception Media’s framing contributed to societal suspicion towards Muslims, reinforcing stereotypes and leading to discrimination. Public discourse avoided critical political analysis, focusing instead on cultural and religious narratives. Impact on academic community Shift away from nuanced political analysis toward cultural explanations in Middle Eastern studies. Critics like Edward Said argued against the ‘clash of civilizations’ as reductive and harmful. Debates intensified around the role of academia in shaping public understanding of terrorism and foreign policy. European vs. American media European media is more likely to link September 11 with political issues like the Israel-palestine conflict Us media stayed aligned with government narratives, avoiding such links and maintaining focus on cultural issues. Conclusion The adoption of Huntington's framework by US media and government had profound impacts on public perception, policy discussions, and academic research. The framing of september 11 as a clash of civilizations continues to influence media narratives and political discourse. Postman, N. (2004). The Information Age: A Blessing or a Curse? Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, Introduction Neil Postman, a professor at NYU, examines the information age. Discusses the pros and cons of the information age References Edna St. Vincent Millay's poem highlights the problem of excess information without meaningful organization Historical context 19th-century innovations addressed information scarcity: ○ Telegraph, photography, rotary press, etc. 20th-century continued with more inventions  Resulted in information glut, incoherence, meaninglessness Challenges of the information age Information comes in large, indiscriminate volumes, losing meaning Lack of ‘loom’ to weave facts into a coherent narrative Importance of transcendent narratives for moral guidance and purpose Solutions proposed by Postman Consult poets, philosophers, and artists, not just engineers and tech experts. Create metaphors and stories to give meaning to the abundance of information. Decline of traditional institutions Decline in authority of religion, family, schools, and political parties These institutions traditionally filtered and prioritized information Example: political party allegiance once helped manage information Cultural and social implications The problem of “cultural AIDS” as a breakdown in information immune systems. Metaphor for narratives acting like immune systems to filter irrelevant information The need for meaningful “transcendent narratives” Technology and society Critique of over-reliance on technological progress narratives Reference to Luddites who resisted early industrial machinery Importance of considering what technology “undoes”, not just what it “does” Education and narratives Need for new narratives beyond technological advances Examples of potential educational narratives: ○ Environmental stewardship (“crew members on spaceship earth”) ○ Human fallibility and continues error correction ○ Diversity beyond ethnicity, embracing new perspectives Conclusion Critiques the notion of cyberspace and virtual reality as solutions Emphasizes the importance of real human interaction and reality Ends with humorous personal anecdotes to illustrate points Week 4: construct the structure Lecture Recap week 3 Positivism Objective interpretation of the world; social science should follow the methodologies and methods established in natural science. Example approach 1: cultural essentialism (e.g., Huntington’s clash of civilizations) Example approach 2: technological determinism (e.g., postman’s theory on media technologies’ negative impact) Social constructivism “Reality” is made by people in social ways and it is a product of mutual understanding (ontology). Knowledge and meaning are co-constructed (epistemology) Relevant theories: Participatory culture Uses and gratification theory Affordance Jean piaget → swiss psychologist Jean baudrillard → french philosopher Example theory: nations as the imagined communities A nation is: Imagined: “The members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion.” Limited: there are boundaries as to who belongs, and who does not. Sovereign: it is extended in territory. A community: “The nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship” (p. 7) Anderson thinks that mass media (printing specifically) is one of the driving force that constructs these imagined communities. ℹ️ Example theory: the social construction of technologies technology does not shape human action, but human (inter)action shapes technologies. Therefore, we ask questions such as: What are the historical/ social/ political contexts of the technology’s invention? How do people understand, adopt, and shape the technology (which contributes to its development)? Structuralism ℹ️an approach to analyzing culture that seeks to reveal the underlying structures that sit beneath cultural products such as literature, film, and television. This structure guides how these cultural products are created and read. Relevant theories: Genre & Narrative Semiotics: the signifying and signified Encoding & decoding Ferdinand de Saussure → Swiss linguist Claude Lévi- Strauss → French anthropologist Example theory: banal nationalism National narratives, identities, and symbols of nationhood are reproductions of institutional cultures in discursive tropes that create and shape the experience of everyday life. Example theory: mass & social media logic Mass media logic → “In contemporary society, every institution has become part of media culture: changes have occurred in every major institution that is a result of media logic in presenting and interpreting activity in those institutions” (Altheide & snow, 1979, p. 11) Social media logic ○ Social media have changed the conditions and rules of social interaction ○ Programmability, popularity, connectivity, and datafication Readings Anderson, B. (2006). Chapter 3 “the origins of national consciousness” in Imagined Communities. London. Print capitalism and the spread of vernacular languages Anderson emphasizes print capitalism's transformative impact on national consciousness development. Before the invention of the printing press, most written materials were in Latin, limiting literacy and access to knowledge to a small, elite class. With the rise of print capitalism, books, pamphlets, and newspapers began to be published in vernacular languages. This allowed more people, particularly the middle classes, to read and engage with written materials, leading to the creation of a shared linguistic and cultural identity within specific regions Standardization of languages As vernacular languages were printed more frequently, they became standardized. This process of standardization allowed people who spoke different dialects within the same language group to communicate more easily and identify with one another. Anderson argues that this linguistic cohesion helped forge a sense of unity and identity that transcended local communities, contributing to the formation of national consciousness. The role of newspapers and collective experience Newspapers played a crucial role in fostering a sense of collective consciousness among individuals. By reporting on events that were happening simultaneously across a broad area, newspapers helped people imagine themselves as part of a larger, connected community. readers, despite being geographically distant, could see themselves as participating in the same events and discussions as others, creating a shared experience of time and reality that reinforced the idea of a nation. Decline of religious and dynastic communities The rise of national consciousness, according to Anderson, occurred alongside the decline of older forms of social organization, particularly religious communities and dynastic realms. As the influence of these sacred and monarchic systems waned, the concept of the nation emerged as a new, secular form of belonging. Nations provided people with a sense of community and identity based on shared language, culture, and history, rather than religious or dynastic loyalties. Conclusion: imagining the nation Anderson concludes that the nation is an imagined community because its members, though they may never meet, share a deep sense of connection through common language, media, and experiences. Print capitalism played a foundational role in helping individuals imagine themselves as part of a nation, transforming the way people understood their place within larger social structures. this shared national consciousness became a key factor in the rise of modern nationalism. Van Dijk, J. & Poell, T. (2013). Understanding social media logic. Media and communication Introduction: the rise of social media logic In this article, Jose van Dijk and Thomas Poell explore the concept of social media logic, a framework that explains how social media logic is distinct form the traditional media logic that characterized earlier mass media systems, such as television and newspapers. Social media logic encompasses the norms, strategies, and mechanisms by which content is produced, distributed, and consumed on social media platforms. Four elements of social media logic Van Dijk and Poell identify four key elements of social media logic that structure how these platforms function: Programmability ○ Programmability refers to the ability of platforms to shape and guide users’ interactions and content creation through algorithms and design. Platforms can influence what users see and how they interact with content by adjusting  algorithms to priorize certain types of posts, ads, or interactions. At the same time, users can influence the platform by generating content that aligns with of manipulates these algorithms. Popularity ○ Social media platforms prioritze content that gains attention and engagement, such as likes, shares, and comments. Popularity is a key factor in determining what content is widely circulated. The authors highlight that algorithms reward engagement which can sometimes lead to the amplification of sensational, polarizing, or emotionally charged content. Popularity metrcis thus play a central role in how visibility and influence are distributed on social media. Connectivity ○ Connectivity refers to how platforms link users to one another and to content. Social media logic relies on fostering connections between users through follows, friends, likes, or retweets. Platforms also connect users to advertisers and third-party apps, creating networks that extend beyond mere social interactions. This connectivity enhances the platform’s role as an intermediary that shapes social interactions, markets, and public discourse. Datafication ○ Datafication is the process by which social interactions, behaviours, and content are transformed into quantifiable data. Every click, like, and interaction on social media is recorded and analyzed, creating detailed profiles of users. Platforms monetize this data through targeted advertising and by selling insights to third parties. This continuous data collection plays a crucial role in shaping users’ experiences and interactions on social media. The impact of social media logic on society The authors argue that social media logic not only influences individuals interactions but also shapes larger societal dynamics. Social media platforms are increasingly integrated into politics, journalism, and business, with significant consequences for public discourse and goverance. Social media logic emphasizes engagement, visibility, and virality, which can prioritiize speed over accuracy, amplify sensational content, and undermine traditional gatekeeping roles in the media. Conclusion: social media logic and changing power structures Van Dijck and Poell conclude that understanding social media logic is essential for analyzing the power dynamics of contemporary media systems. Social media platforms operate as gatekeepers, shaping how information flows and what content gains prominence. As these platforms continue to grow, their logic plays a critical role in redefining communication, participation, and influence in society. This shift has profound implications for how individuals, institutions, and governments engage with the public and interact with one another in the digital age. Week 5: capitalism and its critics: Marxism(s) for our times Lecture What is a manifesto? A manifesto is a published declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party, or government. A manifesto usually accepts a previously published opinion or public consensus. ○ A public consensus is a group decision-making process in which participants develop and decide on proposals with the goal of achieving broad acceptance, defined by its terms as form of consensus. Or promotes a new idea with prescriptive notions for carrying out changes the author believes should be made. It is often political, social, or artistic in nature, sometimes revolutionary, but may present an individual's life stance. A manifesto is the beginning of a new political party. It is a particular kind of medium/ writing where they promote their ideas, and it is very much opinion-based. Which marx(ism) and whose? “If anything is certain, it is that I myself am not a Marxist” (Karl Marx 1882) The minute he published the document, manifesto of a communist party, the split started to happen. Marx was not a Marxist himself. There were ideas in it about how capitalism is a problem, but most people interpreted the ideas the wrong way so that is why Marx was not a Marxist himself. “Those who do not move, do not notice their chains” (Rosa Luxemburg 1913) Rosa → If you stay still, you don't even notice that you can move. This refers to Plato's cave (lecture week 1) Founder of the german communist party Theory about imperialism Marxism - multiple meanings and applications Set of philosophical premises (ontology and epistemology) Set of economic and political theories about how the ‘real world’ - western capitalist societies- works A theory - theories- of societal change and why that is needed (revolution) Text dive (i) the communist manifesto (1848) A specter is haunting Europe - the specter of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into the holy alliance to exorcise this specter: pope and tsar, Metternich and Guizot, french radicals and German police spies. (communist manifesto 1848: p.27..) The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, partrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society (communist manifesto 1848: p.28..) Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other - bourgeoisie and proletariat (communist manifesto 1848: p.29..) ] Marx’s critique of capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system based on profit- the production of “surplus value”. It is also a social system based on the exploitation of workers (those who must “sell their labor”) by capital (those who own “the means of production”) Over the last couple of centuries, the world has become divided into two main antagonistic classes: the capitalist bourgeoisie and the working class. Capitalism perpetuates itself because Western (industrialized) societies are structurally defined by the capitalist mode of production (the base). On top of this economic foundation, we find the arts, culture, political parties, public institutions like schools (the superstructure) Capitalism is not a just form of socioeconomic organization because it is based on the haves and the have-nots. 20th-century revolutionaries mobilized for societies based on the economics of “socialism” (Western Europe) and “communism” (Russia, china): e.g. public (not private) ownership of utilities, communications, profit-sharing, and other ways of distributing wealth more fairly Marx in his later work argued that Marxist economic theory is scientific, based on observations of empirical-material- evidence of how capitalist societies work over time; a historical materialist epistemology. Marxism (Marx in early work and successive generations) also argues that Marxist thought is also a philosophy, with an ethical program ( an ontology of how the world should be). Marxists and their critics (revelutionaries, social democrats, anarchists) adapt Marxist ideas for political ideology (a program for change based on the seizure of executive power and structural transformation in ownership and control of the means of production) 20thc Marxist political programs, successful and not successful, have become more inseparable from the sociocultural legacy of Marxist-Leminism (USSR 1917-1999) and Maoist interpretations of Marx’s theories (China 1949-1976/ to present day?) Marxist political history and mobilization straddle national workers’ movements and internationalist-global - movements represented by Trade Unions The cast: historical personalities Karl marx (1818 - 1883) & friedrich Engels (1820- 1895) - co-authors of the communist manifesto Capitalism is a historical economic system based on capitalist (ownership of the means of production) exploitation of workers (waged labor) to generate profit (surplus value). Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919) - founder of the polish social democratic party and the Spartacus League (aka German Communist Party) - murdered in Berlin by members of a paramilitary group Imperialsm is the result of capitalist expansion into “underdeveloped” areas of the world - socialism (based on Marx’s ideas) must also be democratic. Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937) - italian Marxist imprisoned by Mussolini Societal transformation is not only about economics, structurally determined: ideas matter too. Class struggle over ideas: ‘hegemony’ is how the powerful control ideas to maintain status-quo, and persuade “the masses” to accept dominant ideologies. Culture and media formative forces. Important for a more constructivist way of thinking Stuart Hall (1932-2014) - Jamaican born British cultural theorist ‘Mass media’ does work as an instrument of the ruling class (following Gramsci) but it is also a ‘field of ideological struggle’: ruling classes do not get to control the media, or ideas all the time as they counter organized resistance from oppositional, and minority constituencies Text dive (ii) precarity beyond the gig, Tamara Kneese (2019) (m)any of the problems found within gig platform labor (and the tech industry), including part-time or temporary employment status, few workplace protections, and lack of health care and other benefits, are found in other contract positions. Discoursing about “doing what you love” or the flexibility afforded by part-time or on-demand work echo those in creative industries and academia… … contract and gig economy workers power the tech industry, just as rampant but under-acknowledged contingent labor allows universities to survive and profit. Historically - driven race, class, and gender-based hierarchies and relationships with gentrification and growing inequality exist in both tech and university contexts… … sacrifice is an expected component of both artistic and academic pursuits. Most academic positions are part-time or contingent, but academics are expected to work without discussing the conditions of their labor. The kind of production expected from cognitive workers is about their self-application and unsocial, extended work days. As Ross noted, 1990s Netslaves in Silicon Alley were enticed with stock options, free coffee, the promise of a non-hierarchical office structure, and a bohemian lifestyle. Many graphic designers and web developers also worked in contract positions without health care, running on caffeine… … situating the gig economy within larger frameworks of precarity creates more space for coalition building and organizing across apparent class boundaries. What might organizers in academia and tech, past and present, have to teach each other? (knees 2019) Illustrative cases Linking a text written in 1848 about working conditions during industrialization (britain, Europe) to one written in 2019 about working for yourself, under precarious contracts in the ‘gig economy’ and academia. Link the texts by taking marx to his words Contemporary capitalism precarious labour→ uncertain/ dangerous / not stable ( uncertain labor, 0 uren contract) Case 1: foxconn - apple iPhone factory (Zhengzhou, China) 2022 workers mobilize against poor working and living conditions, fleeing an outbreak of Covid - violent clashes with security guards- the company offers bonuses to get workers back on site but does not deliver the sleep live in the factories. The living conditions are really bad. (same as in marx his time) working conditions in 2019 are there the same as in the mid 19 century, in Marx his era) That is why you can link the texts because it is still the same. It is also very brave that they are striking because striking is illegal in China even though it's a human right. Case 2: Hollywood scriptwriters strike In May 2023, 20.000 members of the scriptwriters union (writers guild of America) stopped work: joined by 160.000 actors in july - all film productions halted, for 22 weeks including promotional activities such as red carpet appearances - huge knock-on effect on the californian economy (US$ 5 billion, 1.7 million workers impacted in related areas e.g. catering, locations, special effects) Protesting the collapse of work and wages in the wake of streaming platforms - demanding more money and greater royalties plus protection against the use of AI that could replace human writers September 2023 scriptwriters reached a deal, but actors stayed out longer (NB: ave. pay for an actor - not celebrities like Meryl Streep or Tom Cruise - is US$ 27.73 (euros 26.46) per hour) - short-term contracts with low wages worse on streaming platforms scriptwriters are directly impacted by ai Ai is taking their jobs Case 3: content moderators in Kenya In April 2023 a group of laid-off content moderators staged a sit-in outside the Nairobi offices of Sama, the main content moderation service for Meta in Africa.  Longstanding allegations at Sama of low pay, mental trauma, and harassment of union represenatives leads to Sama closing down, and laying off 260 employees. One employee, Kauna Malgwi, testified to the nature of content moderation work: “reviewing and flagging content that violated Facebook’s guidelines. She would typically start her day at 7 am, sifting through thousands of posts daily, many of which contained disturbing content such as videos depicting murders, road accidents, rape, beheadings, and suicides. She earned around $600 per month”: other workers call the work “torture” Former Sama employees suing the company, and Meta over their dangerous working conditions content moderatorion → the process of reviewing and monitoring user-generated content on online platforms to ensure that it meets certain standards and guidelines. Poor employment conditions They flag content and block everything that is violent The work is “torture”, it has a psychological impact to see all the content Summing up Marxist ideas are part of media studies theory and research They cover the spectrum of epistemological, ontological, and phenomenological takes on economic, political, and cultural life under successive generations and forms of capitalism. Critics of Marxist thought reject the condemnation of capitalist relations of production as inherently exploitative. Within the history of Marxist thought, critics note the limitations of focusing only on class in theory, research and politics: Marxist scholars look to include race/ etnicity, caste, sex/ gender, religion, and the role of media in understanding how capitalism works. Readings Kneese, Tamara, 2019 precarity beyond the gig, Logout! Historical roots of precarity The article argues that precarious work has long existed, predating the modern gig economy. This historical context is vital in understanding how insecurity in work, lack of benefits, and low wages have been embedded in various sectors, from manufacturing to agriculture. Different forms of precarious labor While gig economy jobs like Uber or Deliveroo get much attention, the article stresses that many traditional industries have perpetuated precarious conditions for decades, affecting full-time and part-time workers alike. The gig economy’s amplification Although not the origin of precarious labor, the gig economy amplifies its worst aspects—temporary contracts, flexible hours without security, and reliance on digital platforms. Workers often face unpredictable incomes and no access to protections like healthcare or retirement benefits. Challenges of organizing workers One of the article’s core concerns is how difficult it is to organize precarious workers, given their fragmented, unstable job structures. Without formal contracts or consistent workplaces, building solidarity is challenging, making collective bargaining and labor organizing difficult. Potential for collective resistance Despite these challenges, the article notes growing movements, especially among gig economy workers, who have started organizing strikes and campaigns for better rights. This suggests that while organizing precarious workers is hard, it is not impossible. Marx, Karl, and Engels, Fredeich. 1848. Manifesto of the communist party the manifesto of the communist party begins by asserting that all of human history is marked by class struggles. Marx and Engels describe how societies have been defined by conflicts between oppressors and oppressed, including feudal lords and serfs, or masters and slaves Rise of the bourgeoisie With the advent of capitalism, the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) became the dominant force, replacing the feudal aristocracy. The bourgeoisie established a new system based on the exploitation of the working class (proletariat). Proletariat’s revolutionary role The manifesto argues that the proletariat will eventually rise against the bourgeoisie to abolish the capitalist system. The working class is seen as the only force capable of overthrowing class oppression and achieving a classless, communist society. Call for unity Marx and Engels call on the workers of the world to unite, emphasizing the international scope of class struggle. The manifesto ends with a rallying cry for revolution, urging workers to seize power from the bourgeoisie. Week 6: “after empire”: Gender-Race and other intersections Lecture Caveat emptor How history and current events intersect with what we study, how we study it, and our self-positioning towards the object of study Authors recap (week 2-5) Alan Chalmers - the common view of scientific knowledge as facts derived from objective observation, misunderstands how the search for relevant facts to be guided by (the) current state of knowledge (Chalmers 1999:13) Donna Haraway - western science is a particular sort of story about humankind along intersections of sex, race, and gender Benedict Anderson - the imagined community undergirding the rise and institutionalization of modern nation-states is “real” as lived experience Samuel Huntington - his racialized cartography of 20th geocultural politics presents ‘a clash of civilizations’ that is inevitable Marshall McLuhan - the media is the massage/message Karl Marx - the history of capitalism is one of class struggle Rosa Luxemburg - histories of capitalism and colonialism are intertwined Antonio Gramsci/Stuart Hall - culture (practices, media artifacts, institutions) is integral to the creation of consent (Gramsci); media cultural practices also a domain of struggle (Hall) for and against hegemonic power Explorations of the history of empire at the intersection of race/ethnicity, sex/gender, class, and religious affiliation Intersectionality - a theory, concept, and a methodological approach Coined by Kimberle Crenshaw, American legal scholar (Crenshaw, 1989) Intersectionality is a ‘way of looking at the world that takes as a principled stance that… gender as an important axis of social difference is simultaneously operating with others like race, class, sexuality, and religion.’ (wekker 2016:11) DOES BIOLOGY DEFINE US? Case study today is barbie - how a focus for feminist critique (she encapsulates sexist, and racial/cultural stereotypes) can become a feminist icon (thanks to the ‘hegemonic’ power of the global culture industries) “Barbara millicent roberts” form “willows”. Wisconsin, USA Doll designed by ruth handler for Mattel, named after her daughter barbara Design by a german doll called Lilli (1950s) Her debut - a mature female doll - in 1959 at american international toy fair 2022 the doll grossed $US 1.49 billion in worldwide sales for Mattel 2023 the brand value for Barbie doubled form 2021, to US$ 700 million Barbie is 30 cm tall, 64 years old but still does not look a day older than 20: white, blond, hyperfeminine, and heterosexual, no kids Can media shape stereotype? Gloria wekker - dutch feminist historian and social theorist Edward said - palestiniam american cultural theorist and literary critic Orientalism, Edward Said (1935-2003) This study derives from my awareness of being an “oriental” as a child growing up in two british colonies. All my education, in those colonies (palestine and egypt) and in the United States, has been Western … my study of orientalism has been an attempt to inventory the traces upon me, the oriental subject, of the culture whose domination has been so powerful a factor in the life of all orientals (said 1979:25) Palestinian american professor of literature at Coluymbia university, New York Prominent advocate for Pakestinian sovereignty Wrote and worked with daniel barenboim (argentina/israel/germany) on musical themes, co-founded the west-eastern divan orchestra with Barenboim From the western European, Anglo-American point of view, the ‘Orient’ refers to (1) the ‘far east’ of (2) the ‘near east’ ‘Far east’ - japan, china, korean peninsula + SE asia such as indonesia, singapore, vietnam, philippines ‘Near east’ - middle east/levant inc. north africa (egypt, libya, tunisia) ○ ‘Levant is the name applied widely to the eastern Mediterranean coastal lands of Asia Minor and Phoenicia (modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon). In a wider sense, the term can be used to encompass the entire coastline form Greece to egypt.’ ‘Far east’ also under british and french rule: indonesia part of dutch empire until 1940s (cf wekker) Near east - the lands of the eastern mediterranean is Edward Saids Orient - part of french and british empires 17th-20thc For edward said: ‘The orient is part of european material civilization and culture. Orientalism expresses and represents that part culturally and even ideologically as a mode of discourse with supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, even colonial bureaucracies and colonial styles.. by orientalism i mean several things…’ (said 1979:2) An academic field: ‘ anyone who teaches, writes about, or researchers the orient’ A ‘style of thought based on an ontological and epistemological distinction made between “the orient” and (most of the time) “the occident” (the “west”)’ The ‘corporate institution for dealing with the orient… by making statements abut it, authorizing views of it: … a western style for dominating, restructuringm and having authority over the orient’ Terms designates ‘mainly though not exclusively, of a british and french cultural enterprise’ (19thc - WWII) and since WWII and amrican one: a ‘closeness’ that has produced ‘the large body of texts (said) calls orientalist’ (said 1979: 2, 3, 4) White innocence, Gloria Wekker Emeritus Professor Utrecht University Afro-surinamese Dutch scholar of gender studies and sexuality specializing in the afro-caribian region Her 2016 book White innocence: paradoxes of colonialism and race explores what she argues is a ‘strong paradox’ at the heart of the dutch nation: ‘a dominant discourse stubbornly maintains that the Netherlands is and always has been colour-blind and anti-racist, a place of extraordinary hospitality and tolerance towards the racialized.ethnicized other.’ (2016:1) Wekkers conceptual framework draws on: Edward sids notion of the cultural archive ‘which foregronds the centrality of imperialism in western culture’ that generates a “storehouse of “ a particular knowledge and strcutrures if attitude and reference … that there are subject races, that one race deserves … the right to expand beyond its own domain’ (said in wekker 2016:2) Dutch self-perceptions as a ‘small, but just, ethical nation; colour blind thus free of racism; as being inherently on the moral and ethical high ground’ (wekker 2016:2) Slavery and the dutch role in the slave-trade is where ‘sexual racism turns out to play a prominent role’. Race ‘which by dominant consensus has been declared missing in action in the Netherlands’ has ‘become cemented and sedimented in the Dutch cultural archive’ with multiple ‘gendered, sexualised and classed meanings’ (wekker 2016:3) She explores three concepts, or ‘paradoxes’: innocence; the cultural archive; white dutch self-representation Like Said, Wekker draws on personal experience, ‘self-positioning’: ‘My own family migrated to the Netherlands in …1951…we were such an unusual sight: “just like dolls.” my mother… drew the line at curious strangers touching our skin and hair”. (Wekker 2016:8) One of Wekker’s illustrative examples Dutch popular culture: the “zwarte piet” controversy and strength of responses to protests: Q: is ‘black pete’ part of ‘indigenous Dutch’ cultural herritage, at the ‘heart of Dutch culture’ when people dress up in ‘black face’ during the festival of sinterklaas? Or is it a lefrover from the Dutch role in the slave trade and denial of everyday racializing categories? Summing up (1)Both authors draw on formative roles that the arts, audiovisual media, literature and public archives play in perpetuating race-gender-class-religious stereotypes ‘One aspect of the electronic… world is that there has been a reinforcementof the stereotypes by which the Orient is viewed. Television, like films, and all the media’s resources have forced information into more and more standardised moulds (about)... “the mysterious Orient” … in the ways by which the Near East is grasped… making even the simplest perception of the Arabs and Islam into a highly politicized, almost raucous matter.’ for example: ‘History of popular anti-Arab and anti-Islamic prejudice in the West’ The ‘struggle between the Arabs and Israeli Zionism and its effect upon American Jews as as upon the liberal culture and the population at large’ The ‘nearly total absense of any cultural position making it possible either to identify with or dispassionately to discuss the Arabs or Islam’ (Said 1979: 26-27) (2) both authors aknowledge historical shifts in how media creators reimagine, reinvent, and recycle stereotypes: Barbie is a case in point: A. Feminist hacker barbie B. ArtActivistBarbie@BarbieReports, Sarah Wiliamson (aka art activist barbie) Week 7: contemporary development, issues: recap & conclusion Lecture Recap Week 1: introduction: the paradigms The different questions; the definitions of media, culture and society Week 2: the “reality paradox”: philosophy@media Paradigm, ontology, epistemology, the example of climate change debates Paradigms are systems of beliefs/assumptions; corresponding research methods Week 3: “culture as essential” and “media as the devil” Positivism, cultural essentialism, technological determinism, clash of civilizations (huntington), medium is the message (McLuhan), Postman Can we study media as hard science; society as variable ○ Cultural essentialism → cultures are bounded by geography, unchangeable ○ Clash of civilizations → ultimate cultural difference between countries ○ Positivism → technology STEERS society NOT influence/impact → steer/determine instead Week 4: construct the structure Constructivism, structuralism, the imagined communities (Anderson), banal nationalism (Billig), social media logic (van Dijk & Poell) Constructivism → we construct our knowledge, no final trut ○ Opposite of positvism ○ More analytical and descriptive, “how?” question ○ Imagined communities → understanding how nations are formed because of media technology (printing) Structuralism → structural issue; a system has limited our way of life ○ Limited by existing systems that we cannot fight (higher power) ○ Banal nationalism → media and nation linked together Life has been shaped by national symbols ○ Social media logic → how our society functions under the restrictions/framework of social media Example: dominant way of activism is going viral Week 5: capitalism and its critics - marxism/s and the 21st century Marxism, capitalism, Karl Marx, Rosa Luxemburg, Antonio Gramsci, stuart hall, case studies of foxconn, Hollywood strike, kenya content moderators Marxism → fully understand this ○ Theorist that follow marxist values  Karl marx Rosa luxemburg Antonio Gramsc Stuart Hall Capitalism → how is it related to marxism Case studies from lecture Marxism is also a structuralist Marxism is also a positivist ○ EXAM: when talking about critic, put it under critical theory Week 6: after empire: gender-race and other intersections Intersection, orientalism, case studies of barbie and white innocence Critical theories → more or less structuralist Intersection → not race/gender/socioeconomic (etc.), but… and…. And… ○ More factors when talking about how inequality works Orientalism → Said ○ More in depth → how are they represented in the media And how the middle east reacts on that. Week 7: contemporary development, issues; recap & conclusion