MCM 207 Foundations of Broadcasting - Past Course Material PDF

MCM 207 -- FOUNDATIONS OF BROADCASTING -------------------------------------- **Week 2 - 3: ORIGIN OF RADIO BROADCASTING** **INTRODUCTION** In tracing the historical development of radio, it is worthy of note that two versions exist; the European and the American historical claim, however, techno...

MCM 207 -- FOUNDATIONS OF BROADCASTING -------------------------------------- **Week 2 - 3: ORIGIN OF RADIO BROADCASTING** **INTRODUCTION** In tracing the historical development of radio, it is worthy of note that two versions exist; the European and the American historical claim, however, technological advancements in wireless telegraphy and telephony are essential inventions that preceded the radio as a means of communication and led to the radio becoming the broadcast medium we are familiar with today (Daramola, 2003). Following the American historical claim, the first attempt was heralded by Guglielmo Marconi's quest to send and receive information over space faster than the "wired telegraph." Marconi, in 1895, carried out the first transmission of wireless signals experiment, based on studies of James Clerk Maxwell in 1865 (the mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves) and Heinrich Hertz in 1885. The latter devised an apparatus for generating and detecting them. In 1901, Marconi sent the first wireless (radio) communication signals using "Morse Code" over a 3km distance (Daramola, 2003). By 1906, Reginald Fessenden initiated the first radio transmission of the human voice, but his efforts did not develop into a useful application (Wikipedia, 2019). Ten years later, in 1916, Lee DeForest used radio in a more modern sense when he set up an experimental radio station, 2XG, in New York City. DeForest gave nightly broadcasts of music and news until World War I halted all transmissions for private citizens (Open Library, 2020). Radio has since Guglielmo Marconi's invention of the wireless telegraph in 1901 developed into a powerful medium for information dissemination and entertainment. Radio is one of the most effective and cheapest means of communication especially in developing and under-developed countries, with almost every household owing or having access to radio either through a radio set or through mobile phones (Myers, 2009). **Pioneers of Modern radio and Timeline of development** **1865** -- ***James Clerk Maxwell*** proposed the theories of electromagnetism which proved that electromagnetic waves existed. However he only showed this mathematically and he was never able to demonstrate them in a practical form. **1885** - ***Heinrich Hertz*** demonstrated and confirmed James Clerk Maxwell's proposition on electromagnetism. He produced and detected electromagnetic waves in his laboratory by using a spark gap attached to an induction coil and a separate spark gap on a receiving antenna. **1895** - ***Guglielmo Marconi*** invented **wireless telegraph** and carried out the first transmission of wireless signals experiment, based on studies of James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz. **1901** - ***Guglielmo Marconi*** sent the first wireless (radio) communication signals using ***"Morse Code"*** over a 3km distance. **1900 and 1906** - ***Reginald Fessenden*** initiated the first radio transmission of the human voice, but his efforts did not develop into a useful application. Fessenden is best known for his pioneering work developing radio technology, including the foundations of [amplitude modulation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation) (AM) radio. His achievements included the first transmission of speech by radio (1900), and the first two-way radiotelegraphic communication across the Atlantic Ocean (1906). **1916** - ***Lee DeForest*** used radio in a more modern sense when he set up an experimental radio station, 2XG, in New York City. DeForest gave nightly broadcasts of music and news until World War I halted all transmissions for private citizens. **1933** - ***Edwin H. Armstrong*** patents FM radio. The frequency modulation allows static and interference from electrical equipment to be reduced, resulting in clearer sound. The first experimental radio station to use this technology (W1XOJ, now WAAF) was constructed in 1937. **1993 - *Carl Malamud*** creates \"Internet Talk Radio,\" the first internet radio program. As time goes on, music programs become popular, and sound quality contnues to increase. Without this technology, music streaming sites like Pandora wouldn\'t exist. **REFERENCES** Daramola, I. (2003). *Introduction to mass communication* (2nd Ed.). Lagos, Rothan Press Ltd. Federal Communications Commission. (2004). A short history of radio with an inside focus on mobile radio. Retrieved from Lynn University Library (n.d.). COM-336 History of Radio, Television and Internet Retrieved from **Extra note** Radio owes its development to two other inventions: the [telegraph](https://www.thoughtco.com/the-history-of-the-electric-telegraph-and-telegraphy-1992542) and the [telephone](https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-the-telephone-alexander-graham-bell-1991380). All three technologies are closely related, and radio technology actually began as \"wireless telegraphy.\" In any case, it all started with the discovery of radio waves---electromagnetic waves that have the capacity to transmit music, speech, pictures, and other data invisibly through the air. Many devices work by using electromagnetic waves, including radios, microwaves, cordless phones, remote controlled toys, televisions, and more. Scottish physicist [James Clerk Maxwell](https://www.thoughtco.com/james-clerk-maxwell-inventor-1991689) first predicted the existence of radio waves in the 1860s. In 1886, German physicist [Heinrich Rudolph Hertz](https://www.thoughtco.com/radar-and-doppler-history-4070020) demonstrated that rapid variations of electric current could be projected into space in the form of radio waves, similar to light waves and heat waves. But it was Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian inventor, who proved the feasibility of radio communication. He sent and received his first radio signal in Italy in 1895. In 1899, he flashed the first wireless signal across the English Channel, and two years later received the letter \"S,\" which was telegraphed from England to Newfoundland (now part of Canada). This was the first successful transatlantic radiotelegraph message. In addition to Marconi, two of his contemporaries, [Nikola Tesla](https://www.thoughtco.com/nikola-tesla-1779840) and Nathan Stubblefield, took out patents for wireless radio transmitters. [Nikola Tesla](https://www.thoughtco.com/nikola-tesla-1779840) is now credited with being the first person to patent radio technology. The Supreme Court overturned Marconi\'s patent in 1943 in favor of Tesla\'s. [Edwin Howard Armstrong](https://www.thoughtco.com/edwin-howard-armstrong-1991244) invented frequency-modulated or FM radio in 1933. FM improved the audio signal of radio by controlling the noise static caused by electrical equipment and the earth\'s atmosphere. In 1965, the first Master [FM Antenna system](https://www.thoughtco.com/famous-inventors-acheson-to-atanasoff-1991246) in the world, designed to allow individual FM stations to broadcast simultaneously from one source, was erected on the Empire State Building in New York City. **Week 4 - 5: ORIGIN OF TELEVISION** The word "television" first appeared in 1907 in the discussion of a theoretical device that transported images across telegraph or telephone wires. The first device you could call a "television system" was created by John Logie Baird. A Scottish engineer, his mechanical television used a spinning "Nipkow disk," a mechanical device to capture images and convert them to electrical signals. These signals, sent by radio waves, were picked up by a receiving device. Its own disks would spin similarly, illuminated by a neon light to produce a replica of the original images. Baird's first public demonstration of his mechanical television system was somewhat prophetically held at a London Department store way back[ in 1925](https://www.nature.com/articles/115504a0). Little did he know that television systems would be carefully intertwined with consumerism throughout history. The evolution of the mechanical television system progressed rapidly and, within three years, Baird's invention was able to broadcast from London to New York. By 1928, the world's first television station opened under the name W2XCW. It transmitted 24 vertical lines at 20 frames a second. Of course, the first device that we today would recognize as television involved the use of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs). These convex glass-in-box devices shared images captured live on camera, and the resolution was, for its time, incredible. ***This modern, electronic television had two fathers working simultaneously and often against each other. They were Philo Farnsworth and Vladimir Zworykin. Philo Farnsworth claimed to have designed the first electronic television receiver[ at only 14](https://www.scribd.com/document/146221929/Zworykin-v-Farnsworth-Part-I-The-Strange-Story-of-TV-s-Troubled-Origin).*** Regardless of those personal claims, ***history records that Farnsworth, at only 21, designed and created a functioning "image dissector" in his small city apartment. The image dissector "captured images" in a manner not too dissimilar to how our modern digital cameras work today. His tube, which captured 8,000 individual points, could convert the image to electrical waves with no mechanical device required. This miraculous invention led to Farnsworth creating the first all-electronic television system.*** **TIMELINE OF THE INVENTION OF TELEVISION** Television was not invented by a single inventor, instead many people working together and alone, contributed to the evolution of TV.  **1831: **[Joseph Henry\'s](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cbljosephhenry.htm) and [Michael Faraday\'s](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblfaraday.htm) work with electromagnetism makes possible the era of electronic communication to begin. **1862: **Abbe Giovanna Caselli invents his \"pantelegraph\" and becomes the **first person to transmit a still image over wires**. **1873:** Scientists May and Smith experiment with selenium and light, this opens the door for inventors to transform images into electronic signals. **1876: **Boston civil servant George Carey was thinking about complete television systems and in 1877 he put forward drawings for what he called a \"selenium camera\" that would allow people to \"see by electricity.\" ***Eugen Goldstein coins the term \"[cathode rays](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcathoderaytube.htm)\" to describe the light emitted when an electric current was forced through a vacuum tube.*** **Late 1870\'s:** Scientists and engineers like Paiva, Figuier, and Senlecq were suggesting alternative designs for \"telectroscopes.\" **1880:** Inventors like Bell and Edison theorize about telephone devices that transmit image as well as sound. Bell\'s [photophone](file:///C:%5C%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5C%5CDC%5C%5CMy%20Documents%5C%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5C%5CInventors%5C%5Clibrary%5C%5Cinventors%5C%5Cbltelephone3.htm) used light to transmit sound and he wanted to advance his device for image sending. George Carey builds a rudimentary system with light-sensitive cells.  **1881:** Sheldon Bidwell experiments with telephotography, another photophone. **1884:** [Paul Nipkow](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblnipkov.htm) sends images over wires using a rotating metal disk technology calling it the \"electric telescope\" with 18 lines of resolution.  **1900:**  At the World\'s Fair in Paris, the 1st International Congress of Electricity was held, where Russian, Constantin Perskyi made the first known use of the word \"television.\" **Soon after, the momentum shifted from ideas and discussions to physical development of TV systems. Two paths were followed:** 1. Mechanical television - based on Nipkow\'s rotating disks, and 2. Electronic television - based on the cathode ray tube work done independently in 1907 by English inventor A.A. Campbell-Swinton and Russian scientist Boris Rosing.  **1906: **[Lee de Forest](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cbldeforest.htm) invents the \"Audion\" vacuum tube that proved essential to electronics. The Audion was the first tube with the ablity to amplify signals. Boris Rosing combines Nipkow\'s disk and a cathode ray tube and builds the first working mechanical TV system. **1907:** Campbell Swinton and Boris Rosing suggest using [cathode ray tubes](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcathoderaytube.htm) to transmit images - independent of each other, they both develop electronic scanning methods of reproducing images. **American Charles Jenkins and Scotsman John Baird followed the mechanical model while Philo Farnsworth, working independently in San Francisco, and Russian émigré Vladimir Zworkin, working for Westinghouse and later RCA, advanced the electronic model.** **1923:** [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) patents his iconscope a TV camera tube based on Campbell Swinton\'s ideas. The iconscope, which he called an \"electric eye\" becomes the cornerstone for further television development. He later develops the kinescope for picture display. **1924 - 1925:** American [Charles Jenkins](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcharlesjenkins.htm) and [John Baird](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblbaird.htm) from Scotland, each demonstrate the mechanical transmissions of images over wire circuits. Photo Left: Jenkin\'s Radiovisor Model 100 circa 1931, sold as a kit. Baird becomes the first person to **transmit moving silhouette images** using a mechanical system based on Nipkow\'s disk. [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) patents a [color television](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcolortelevision.htm) system. **1926: **[John Baird](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblbaird.htm) operates a 30 lines of resolution system at 5 frames per second. **1927:** Bell Telephone and the U.S. Department of Commerce conduct the** first long distance use of TV**, between Washington D.C. and New York City on April 9th. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover commented, "Today we have, in a sense, the transmission of sight for the first time in the world's history. Human genius has now destroyed the impediment of distance in a new respect, and in a manner hitherto unknown." [Philo Farnsworth](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblfarnsworth.htm) files for a patent on the first complete electronic television system, which he called the Image Dissector. **1928:** T**he Federal Radio Commission issues the first television license (W3XK) to [Charles Jenkins](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcharlesjenkins.htm).** **1929:** [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) demonstrates the first practical electronic system for both the transmission and reception of images using his new kinescope tube. [John Baird](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblbaird.htm) opens **the first TV studio,** however, the image quality was poor.  **1930: [Charles Jenkins](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcharlesjenkins.htm) broadcasts the first TV commercial. The BBC begins regular TV transmissions**. **1933:** Iowa State University (W9XK) starts broadcasting twice weekly television programs in cooperation with radio station WSUI. **1936:** About 200 hundred television sets are in use world-wide. The introduction of coaxial cable, which is a pure copper or copper-coated wire surrounded by insulation and an aluminum covering. These cables were and are used to transmit television, telephone and data signals. The 1st \"experimental\" coaxial cable lines were laid by AT&T between New York and Philadelphia in 1936. The first "regular" installation connected Minneapolis and Stevens Point, WI in 1941. The original L1 coaxial-cable system could carry 480 telephone conversations or one television program. By the 1970\'s, L5 systems could carry 132,000 calls or more than 200 television programs. **1937:** CBS begins TV development. The BBC begins high definition broadcasts in London. Brothers and Stanford researchers Russell and Sigurd Varian introduced the Klystron in. A Klystron is a high-frequency amplifier for generating microwaves. It is considered the technology that makes UHF-TV possible because it gives the ability to generate the high power required in this spectrum. **1939:** [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) and RCA conduct experimentally broadcasts from the Empire State Building. Television was demonstrated at the New York World\'s Fair and the San Francisco Golden Gate International Exposition. RCA\'s David Sarnoff used his company\'s exhibit at the 1939 World\'s Fair as a showcase for the 1st Presidential speech (Roosevelt) on television and to introduce RCA\'s new line of television receivers -- some of which had to be coupled with a radio if you wanted to hear sound. The Dumont company starts making tv sets. **1940:** Peter Goldmark invents a 343 lines of resolution [color television](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcolortelevision.htm). **1941:** The FCC releases the NTSC standard for black and white TV. **1943:** [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) developed a better camera tube - the Orthicon. The Orthicon (Photo Left) had enough light sensitivity to record outdoor events at night. **1946:** Peter Goldmark, working for CBS, demonstrated his [color television system](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcolortelevision.htm) to the FCC. His system produced color pictures by having a red-blue-green wheel spin in front of a cathode ray tube. This mechanical means of producing a color picture was used in 1949 to broadcast medical procedures from Pennsylvania and Atlantic City hospitals. In Atlantic City, viewers could come to the convention center to see broadcasts of operations. Reports from the time noted that the realism of seeing surgery in color caused more than a few viewers to faint. Although Goldmark\'s mechanical system was eventually replaced by an electronic system he is recognized as the first to introduce a broadcasting color television system.  **1948:** [Cable television](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcabletelevision.htm) is introduced in Pennsylvania as a means of bringing television to rural areas. A patent was granted to [Louis W. Parker](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cbllouisparker.htm) for a low-cost television receiver. One million homes in the United States have television sets. **1950: **The FCC approves the first [color television](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblcolortelevision.htm) standard which is replaced by a second in 1953. [Vladimir Zworykin](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblzworykin.htm) developed a better camera tube - the Vidicon. **1956:** Ampex introduces the first practical [videotape](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblvideo.htm) system of broadcast quality. **1956:** Robert Adler invents the first practical [remote control](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblremotecontrols.htm) called the Zenith Space Commander, proceeded by wired remotes and units that failed in sunlight. **1960:** The first split screen broadcast occurs on the Kennedy - Nixon debates. **1962:** The All Channel Receiver Act requires that UHF tuners (channels 14 to 83) be included in all sets. **1962:** AT&T launches Telstar, the first satellite to carry TV broadcasts - broadcasts are now internationally relayed. **1967: Most TV broadcasts are in color.**  **1969:** July 20, first TV transmission from the moon and 600 million people watch. **1972:** Half the TVs in homes are color sets.  **1973:** Giant screen projection TV is first marketed. **1976:** Sony introduces betamax, the first home video cassette recorder. **1978:** PBS becomes the first station to switch to all satellite delivery of programs. **1981**: NHK demonstrates HDTV with 1,125 lines of resolution. **1982:** Dolby surround sound for home sets is introduced. **1983:** Direct Broadcast Satellite begins service in Indianapolis, In.  **1984:** Stereo TV broadcasts approved. **1986: **Super VHS introduced. **1993: **[Closed captioning](file:///C:%5CDocuments%20and%20Settings%5CDC%5CMy%20Documents%5CMy%20Web%20Sites%5CInventors%5Clibrary%5Cinventors%5Cblclosedcaptioning.htm) required on all sets. **1996:** The FCC approves ATSC\'s HDTV standard. Billion TV sets world-wide. **REFERENCE:** - Thomas G., (2022), \"The First TV: A Complete History of Television\", History Cooperative, . Accessed December 14, 2022 - Bellis, M., (n.d.) History of Television Timeline. Retrieved December 16, 2022, https://theinventors.org/library/inventors/bl\_television\_timeline.htm **Week 6: KEY CONCEPTS OF BROADCASTING** 1. **Audience:** The group of people who are intended to receive and consume the content of a broadcast. 2. **Frequency:** The range of radio waves used to transmit a broadcast signal, measured in hertz (Hz). 3. **Amplitude:** The strength or intensity of a radio or television signal, measured in decibels (dB). 4. **Modulation:** The process of encoding information onto a carrier wave, such as a radio or television signal, to transmit it over the airwaves. 5. **Transmission:** The process of sending a broadcast signal through the airwaves to be received by an audience. 6. **Reception:** The process of receiving a broadcast signal and interpreting it as useful information or entertainment. 7. **Spectrum:** The range of frequencies available for use in broadcasting. 8. **Terrestrial broadcasting:** The use of radio waves to transmit a broadcast signal over the surface of the Earth, as opposed to satellite or cable broadcasting. 9. **Satellite broadcasting:** The use of satellites to transmit a broadcast signal to a wide area, typically covering entire countries or regions. 10. **Studio:** A place where live broadcasting or recording takes place. It is usually equipped with broadcast equipment. 11. **Control room:** The room in a studio or broadcast facility where the technical operations of a broadcast are controlled. Some of the activities that take place in a control room include sound and video mixing, lighting, and transmission. 12. **Newsroom:** The area of a broadcasting facility where news writers, news editors and news readers converge. is gathered, written, and edited for broadcast. 13. **Anchor:** The person who presents the news or other information during a broadcast. 14. **Reporter:** The person who gathers information and reports on it for a broadcast, typically working in the field. 15. **Audio mixing:** The process of adjusting the levels of different audio sources in a broadcast, such as music, sound effects, and voiceover, to create a cohesive audio experience. 16. **Video mixing:** The process of adjusting the levels of different video sources in a broadcast, such as live footage and pre-recorded video, to create a cohesive visual experience. 17. **Graphics:** The visual elements used in a broadcast, such as logos, maps, and charts, to enhance the information being presented. 18. **Teleprompter:** A device that displays scrolling text in front of a camera. It is typically used by anchors and other on-camera talent to read scripts or other information. 19. **Cue:** A signal that tells a person or machine when to start or stop an action in a broadcast. 20. **Transcoder:** A device that converts a broadcast signal from one format to another, such as from analog to digital. WEEK 7: **DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO AND TV BROADCASTING IN NIGERIA** Broadcasting in Nigeria started in 1932 when the British government launched the radio distribution service called Re-diffusion Broadcasting System (RBS) in Lagos as a means of redistributing programs originating from the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in London as part of its overseas services (Akashoro, Okidu and Ajaga, 2013). The purpose was to develop some political culture and economic links between Britain and the English speaking countries (Mackay, 1964 cited by Udeajah, 2004:8). Broadcasting in Nigeria can be categorized under three distinct periods: the colonial era, the post-colonial era, and the liberalized era. In the colonial era, radio operated under a vertical structure of communication, where it was used primarily to foster the ideologies and policies of the colonial government. According to Ansah (1985) cited in Dunu (2015:3), colonial-style radio was meant to "provide information, cultural and entertainment needs of the political and educated elite who consisted of European settlers, colonial administrators and the small group of educated Africans." Dunu (2015) posits that radio was a means used for national administration, unity, and development in the post-colonial period. Radio broadcasting in this period retained the public service model patterned after the BBC. The establishment of regional broadcasting also characterized this period. Primarily, radio was a tool for communicating national development information and government activities. The management, structure, and ownership of radio stations were strictly under the control and monopoly of the government (Dunu, 2015). In the liberalised period, the government's monopoly over broadcasting in Nigeria ended with the promulgation of decree 38 of 1992. The decree allowed for the deregulation of broadcasting in Nigeria, therefore, allowing private participation. Liberalisation of broadcasting was a landmark achievement in the Babangida administration. General Ibrahim Babaginda loosened the tightrope of the government's monopoly on the electronic media by authorising private ownership of the broadcast media (Udeajah, 2005). Under the liberalized era, the first private player to receive broadcast license was Daar Communication set up by Raymond Dokpesi, He set up Raypower and Afrcan Independent Television (AIT) WEEK 8: **BROADCAST REGULATION IN NIGERIA** The liberalisation of broadcasting in Nigeria, led to the Federal Government of Nigeria setting up the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) in August 1992. The NBC was saddled with the responsibility of regulating the broadcast industry in Nigeria (Akashoro, Okidu & Ajaga 2013). By 1993, NBC published the first edition of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code (also referred to as The Code) and has published five more editions, with the latest being the sixth edition published in 2016 (Dunu, 2015). NBC (2016:11) describes The Code as the 'minimum standard for broadcasting in the Federal Republic of Nigeria' and stipulates that it be 'applied in the spirit and the letter in accordance with the professional ideals of broadcasting.' NBC (2016) outlines three tiers of broadcasting in Nigeria, namely: A. Public service broadcasting B. Commercial/Private broadcasting C. Community broadcasting **A. Public Service Broadcasting:** The Nigeria Broadcasting Code (2016) defines Public Service Broadcasting (PSB) as broadcasting that is funded and controlled by the public, free from political and commercial interference. The purpose of PSB is to produce and transmit quality programming that will provide information and encourage the quest for knowledge, project and promote rich cultural norms and values among the various publics. PSB also promotes national unity among diverse groups and rural communities in Nigeria and give access to different views and opinions in society (Nigeria Broadcasting Code, 2016). **B. Private/Commercial Broadcasting:** The Nigeria Broadcasting Code (2016) defines Private/Commercial broadcasting as a business venture owned by corporate entities. Funding for this tier of broadcasting is derived from profit, sponsorships, advertisements, and other legitimate sources. The Nigerian Broadcasting Code stipulates that a minimum of 5% of weekly broadcast hours be allotted to public service programmes and announcements. **C. Community Broadcasting:** Community broadcasting is a non-profit service owned and managed by a particular community, usually through a trust, foundation, or association. It aims to serve and benefit its immediate community (Fraser and Estrada, 2001). According to the Nigeria Broadcasting Code (2016), community broadcasting is a key agent of democratisation for socio-cultural, educational, and economic development. It is a non-profit, grassroots public broadcast service medium through which community members can contribute and foster civic responsibilities and integration. Recognised communities in the NB Code that may apply for a community broadcasting license include a local non-profit organisation, a cultural association, a co-operative society, a partnership of associations, and an educational institution (campus). Campus radio broadcasting is categorised under the tier of community broadcasting as outlined in section 2.1of the Nigeria Broadcasting Code (2016). They play a vital role in informing, educating, and building vibrant campus communities. They are set up primarily as a training tool for students and, serve as a developmental tool to their immediate community. WEEK 9 & 10: **RADIO & TV STUDIO EQUIPMENTS** *Some of the key equipments you can find in a typical radio station/studio include the following;* 1. **Audio Console** Radio Equipment: Audio Consoles At the heart of any studio is the audio console (sometimes called a radio panel, sound panel, or sound desk). This is the interface the radio announcer (or panel operator) uses to control what's heard on air. Every channel represents one "input". The fader (slider) attenuates or amplifies the incoming signal. Radio Audio Consoles are very different from a regular Live Sound audio console. They are purpose-built for on-air talent ease of use. When you turn a microphone on or off, a radio console will mute any speakers and illuminate an "on air" light. When you turn a CD Player, Phone or Couter channel on, often it will "trigger" that input so it starts playing immediately. While analog audio consoles have the physical audio flow directly through the console's circuitry, many radio stations now use Digital Audio Consoles. 2. **Microphone**  A microphone captures sounds from the studio and turns it into electrical impulses. The microphone is also an important equipment needed by broadcasters in the discharge of their daily duties. Microphones are of several types but they perform one function that of magnifying the voice of the talent as far as programme production is concerned. Types of microphones include the following; - Omni-directional microphone -- Omnidirectional microphones are **microphones that pick up sound with equal gain from all sides or directions of the microphone**. This means that whether a user speaks into the microphone from the front, back, left or right side, the microphone will record the signals all with equal gain. - Uni-directional microphone - ***Unidirectional Microphones*** are microphones that only pick up sound with high gain from a specific side or direction of the microphone. This type of microphone can be used in one direction. It can only handle about two persons and not more than that and the persons must be positioned in the same direction. - Bi-directional microphone -- This type of microphone is equally sensitive to sounds from the front and back while rejecting sounds from its sides (ring of silence). The sound captured from the front side capture is opposite in polarity to the sound captured to the rear side. 3. **Microphone Arm** Radio Equipment: Microphone Arm Studio microphones are often mounted on a special arm that keeps the microphone at the correct height. These arms often extend over the audio console, computer monitors, and other equipment -- leaving plenty of table space free for equipment and paper. 4. **Pop Filter**  A pop filter is a noise protection filter for microphones, typically used in a recording studio. It serves to **reduce or eliminate popping sounds caused by the mechanical impact of fast-moving air on the microphone from plosives during recorded speech and singing**. 5. **Playout & Automation Software** Radio Equipment: Playout Automation Software The computer program that plays back music, spots (ads, promos, etc.) and sweepers (the little voice-overs played between songs) is called a Playout or Automation Software. These are specially designed computer programs that allow for continuous playback of audio, with a lot of granular control for Announcers and Programme Directors. At the heart of any Automation System is the "log". This is a sequential list of all audio files and commands that need to be played at certain times. All music played on a commercial radio station will be pre-programmed by the Music Director and loaded into the log. A separate person will often load all advertisements into the same log. Most automation systems also contain a music database, hot keys (to play ad-hoc audio), an audio editor, segue editor (to change the mix between different elements), interfaces for website and RDS data, and a lot more. 6. **Level Meters**  To ensure output of a station is somewhat consistent, radio studios contain different Level Meters. These allow the announcer or panel operator to see if their audio is too loud or too quiet at any given time. Often, you'll have multiple meters showing the levels at different points in the signal chain. 7. **Studio Monitor Speakers** Radio Equipment: Studio Speakers Studio Monitor Speakers provide an easy way to hear what's going to air without headphones. Often, these are very high quality speakers so any abnormalities in sound quality can be detected. 8. **Headphones**  Studio Monitor Speakers are automatically muted whenever a microphone is turned on. As a result, anyone in a studio needs headphones to hear what is going to air. Headphone selection is often a very personal decision based on your preferences in comfort and frequency response. 9. **On Air Light** Radio Equipment: On Air Light How do you know a mic in the studio is live? There's a light especially for that! This light is automatically turned on/off by the audio console whenever a microphone channel is turned on. Usually you'd have at least one light inside the studio, and one outside. 10. ** Computer**  The most common piece of equipment in any radio station is by far the computer. These come in many shapes and sizes, and can perform a whole range of broadcast functions. They have become popular. Here are some things you can do on a computer in a radio station: - Automation/playout system - Routing control - Monitoring - Audio logging - File sharing - Music scheduling - Traffic scheduling - Newsroom operations - Dead air detection - Emergency audio playback - Profanity Delay - Audio processing **TV STUDIO EQUIPMENTS** Blackmagic Design Atem 2 video mixer 1. **Video Mixer/Switcher** This controls inputs from cameras, videotape players, hard drives and graphics devices. The switcher allows a director to mix and cut between the input sources to create a final program. It allows you to air the desired source via simple or complex transitions; create and manage virtual sets; superimpose graphics or texts.\ \  2. **Studio Prompter/Teleprompter** Studio prompters - or teleprompters - are fundamental during news, sports and weather programs.\ \ They allow the host or journalist to easily read the prompts without looking away from the camera.\ \ They are managed by computer software and are able to support cameras of any size. 3. **Audio and Video Monitors** Monitors make it possible for studio operators to check audio and video signals travelling between one direction and the other, internally as well as externally.\ They are installed in the studio, and the biggest ones serve the purpose of informing hosts, guests, audience and all those working on the show about what is currently being aired. SDI to HDMI converter ### Converters  5. **Tripod** This is a device utilizing three telescoping legs with a device at the top called a \"head,\" used to support a camera and create panning and tilting moves. Professional Video And Photo Led Light Kit With Varicolour And Tripod1. 6. **Lighting** Studio lighting or lighting generally serves two main purposes: to enable the camera to see and take clear pictures/videos, and to provide a viewer with important visual information about an event such as space area, time of day and even mood of an event. According to Warritay (1986), there are basically three types of lighting; Base lighting, Model lighting and Effects lighting. - Base lighting -- This is general studio lighting with the use of fill light. The lighting is soft not harsh. It is not directed to any particular place and, therefore, does not create much shadow. However, the illumination is enough for a television camera to transmit acceptable pictures. The Image Orthicon (black-and-white) camera, the Plumbicon (colour) camera and the Videocon (portable) camera require different intensities of base light. - Model lighting -- This lighting is usually directed towards a specific scene or performers. It combines three basic lights, namely: key light, fill light and back light. The key light is directional, very strong and illuminates the subject, but one disadvantage is that it creates shadows. The fill light reduces the harshness of the shadows; the back light on the other hand outlines the subject and separates him or her from the background. - Effects lighting -- Special effect lights are **used to add special or unique color and visual impact to ares of an venue that the light designer wants to bring attention to or focus the crowd to** - From Black Lights to Strobe Lights, these lighting effects always have a incredible impact on the crowd. **Week 12: BROADCAST PERSONALITIES** **LEGENDS OF BROADCASTING** 1. ***Guglielmo Marconi*** An Italian inventor and electrical engineer, Marconi is considered the father of radio for his development of the first practical radio communication system. He is credited with the development of the first practical radio communication system, which he demonstrated in 1895, and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his pioneering work. Marconi is credited with inventing the first practical wireless telegraph system, which used radio waves to transmit signals over long distances. This breakthrough led to the development of the radio broadcasting industry, as we know it today. Marconi\'s first successful wireless transmission took place in 1895, when he sent a signal over a distance of two miles. In 1901, Marconi successfully transmitted a radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean, from Cornwall, England, to Newfoundland, Canada. 2. ***Philo Farnsworth*** Philo Farnsworth was an American inventor who made significant contributions to the field of television broadcasting. He is credited with inventing the first fully electronic television system and receiving the first patent for such a system in 1930. Farnsworth\'s invention was based on the principle of the cathode ray tube, which allowed him to convert images into electronic signals that could be transmitted over the airwaves. Farnsworth\'s invention paved the way for the development of electronic television broadcasting, which has become an integral part of modern society. It has transformed the way we receive and consume information, entertainment, and news, and has had a significant impact on our culture and way of life. 3. ***Barbara Walters*** Barbara Walters was an American broadcast journalist and television personality who made significant contributions to the field of broadcasting. She is known for breaking barriers for women in broadcast journalism and creating a new style of news reporting that focused on personal interviews with celebrities and newsmakers. Walters began her career as a writer and researcher for NBC\'s \"Today\" show in the 1960s, and went on to become a co-host of the program in 1974. She also co-hosted ABC\'s \"20/20\" program, which focused on investigative journalism and human interest stories. Walters is best known for her personal interviews with world leaders, celebrities, and newsmakers. She was known for her ability to ask tough questions and get her subjects to reveal personal details about their lives and experiences. She conducted groundbreaking interviews with the likes of Fidel Castro, Vladimir Putin, and Monica Lewinsky. Walters\' contribution to broadcasting has earned her numerous awards and honors, including induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1989. She is remembered as one of the most influential and pioneering women in broadcast journalism, who helped shape the way we consume news and information 4. ***Ted Turner*** Ted Turner is an American media mogul who made significant contributions to the field of broadcasting. He is best known for founding the Cable News Network (CNN), the first 24-hour cable news channel, which revolutionized the way news was delivered and consumed. Turner began his career in the media industry by taking over his father\'s billboard advertising business. He went on to acquire a struggling Atlanta television station and turned it into a successful independent network, which he used as a platform to launch CNN in 1980. CNN was a groundbreaking venture, as it provided 24-hour coverage of breaking news events from around the world, which was not available on traditional broadcast news networks at the time. This transformed the way people consumed news and established CNN as a leader in the cable news industry. In addition to CNN, Turner also founded other media properties, including the Cartoon Network, Turner Classic Movies, and TNT. He was also a pioneer in the use of satellite technology for broadcasting, which allowed for the distribution of programming to a wider audience. Turner\'s contribution to broadcasting has earned him numerous awards and honors, including induction into the Television Hall of Fame in 1991. He is remembered as one of the most influential figures in the media industry, who transformed the way we consume news and entertainment. 5. ***Reginald Fessenden*** Reginald Fessenden was a Canadian inventor and pioneer in the field of radio communications, who made significant contributions to broadcasting. He is credited with developing the first successful voice and music radio broadcast, which paved the way for modern radio broadcasting. In 1906, Fessenden made history by transmitting the first wireless radio broadcast of voice and music. He accomplished this by developing a new type of radio transmitter that used a high-frequency alternator to generate continuous waves of radio signals. Fessenden\'s groundbreaking broadcast took place on Christmas Eve in 1906, when he transmitted a message and played a recording of \"O Holy Night\" to ships off the coast of Massachusetts. This was the first time that a radio broadcast had included music and voice, and it demonstrated the potential of radio as a medium for entertainment and communication. 6. ***Nikola Tesla*** Nikola Tesla was a Serbian-American inventor and electrical engineer who made significant contributions to the field of broadcasting. He is best known for his work on alternating current (AC) electrical systems, which revolutionized the way electricity was transmitted and distributed. Tesla\'s most significant contribution to broadcasting was his invention of the Tesla coil, which is still used today in radio and television technology. The Tesla coil is a type of resonant transformer that can produce high-voltage, low-current, high-frequency alternating current electricity. This breakthrough made it possible to transmit wireless signals over long distances, which paved the way for modern radio and television broadcasting. **LEGENDS OF BROADCASTING IN NIGERIA** 1. ***General Ibrahim Babaginda*** General Ibrahim Babangida, a former military ruler of Nigeria, made significant contributions to the development of broadcasting in Nigeria during his tenure. Here are some of his contributions: - Involvement of Private players in broadcasting in Nigeria: During his tenure, Babangida expanded the number of radio and TV stations in the country, which helped to improve access to information and entertainment for Nigerians. He also encouraged the establishment of private radio and TV stations. - Babangida's administration loosened the tightrope of the government's monopoly on broadcast media by authorising private ownership of the broadcast media which supported the establishment of independent media in Nigeria, helped to promote democracy and free speech. In conclusion, General Ibrahim Babangida made significant contributions to the development of broadcasting in Nigeria. His efforts helped to improve access to information and entertainment for Nigerians, and his support for independent media helped to promote democracy and free speech in the country. 2. ***Chief Obafemi Awolowo*** A Nigerian statesman, political leader and one of the founding fathers of Nigeria\'s independence, Awolowo was also a pioneer in the field of broadcasting in Nigeria, he played a major role in the establishment of the Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service (WNBS), the first indigenous broadcasting station in Nigeria, which was later renamed the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV). 3. ***Mo Abudu*** Mo Abudu is a Nigerian media mogul and businesswoman, who has made significant contributions to the broadcasting industry in Nigeria. She is the founder and CEO of EbonyLife TV, a Nigerian cable network that launched in 2013 and became the first African-owned global black entertainment and lifestyle network. She is also the Executive Producer of several hit TV shows, such as \"Moments with Mo,\" \"The Apprentice Africa,\" \"Eloy Awards,\" and \"The Debaters,\" which have become popular and influential in the Nigerian broadcasting industry. Mo Abudu is also credited with introducing a new level of production quality and storytelling in Nigeria, with her shows often featuring an international standard of production and storytelling, which has helped to raise the bar for other producers in the country. Abudu has also been instrumental in promoting and showcasing Africa\'s cultural heritage and diversity to the rest of the world through her shows, which often feature stories and content from across the continent. She has been recognized for her efforts to promote the participation and representation of women in the Nigerian broadcasting industry. Mo Abudu has also been a mentor to many young people in the industry, giving them the opportunity to learn and grow in the field of broadcasting, her mentorship program has helped to produce some of the best talents in the industry today. Mo Abudu has made significant contributions to the Nigerian economy, her company EbonyLife TV has created jobs and has been a significant contributor to the Nigerian GDP.