Mason 1st Semester Trade Theory PDF

MASON 1st Semester TRADE THEORY SECTOR: Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP GOVERNMENT OF INDIA NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL...

MASON 1st Semester TRADE THEORY SECTOR: Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP GOVERNMENT OF INDIA NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032 Sector : Construction, Construction Material and Real Estate Duration : 1 - Year Trades : Mason 1st Semester - Trade Theory Copyright © 2014 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai First Edition : August 2014, Copies : 1,000 Rs. 150 /- All rights reserved. No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai. Published by: NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032. Phone : 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421 Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791 email : [email protected] Website: www.nimi.gov.in (ii)  FOREWORD The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) is an autonomous body under the Directorate General of Employment and Training (DGE&T) Ministry of Labour and Employment has been developing, producing and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs are extensively used in the Industrial Training Institutes/Training centres in Industries to impart practical training and develop work-skills for the trainees and the trainers The Ministry of Labour & Employment constituted Mentor Councils (MCs) to revampcourses run / to be run under National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) in 25 sectors. The MCs have representatives from thought leaders among various stakeholders viz. one of the top ten industries in the sector innovative entrepreneurs who have proved to be game-changers, academic/professional institutions (IITs etc.), experts from field institutes of DGE &T, champion ITIs for each of the sectors and experts in delivering education and training through modern methods like through use of IT, distance education etc. The technical support to the MCs is provided by Central Staff Training and Research Institute (CSTARI), Kolkata and National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai. Some of the MCs are also supported by sector-wise Core Groups which were created internally in the Ministry (in 11 sectors). A Steering Committee to provide overall coordination and guidance to Mentor Councils has also been constituted and has representation from the MCs, Chair positions to be endowed by the Ministry, trade unions, and experts on distance education and training. The MCs are mandated to work towards revamping/ suggesting new courses, improving assessment systems, overall learning etc. for subjects under the purview of the NCVT. Accordingly NIMI with the support and assistance of MC has developed Mason trade Theory 1st Semester in Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate sector to enhance the employability of ITI trainees across the country and also to meet the industry requirement. I have no doubt that the trainees and trainers of ITIs & Training centres in industries will derive maximum benefit from these books and that NIMI's effort will go a long way in improvement of Vocational Training. I complement Director, Mentor Council members, Media Development Committee (MDC) members and staff of NIMI for their dedicated and invaluable contribution in bringing out this publication. ALOK KUMAR, I.A.S., Director General of Employment & Training/ Joint Secretary Ministry of Labour and Employment Government of India New Delhi - 110 001 (iii)  PREFACE This National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was set up at Chennai by the Directorate General of Employment and Training (DGE&T) Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India with technical assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to develop and disseminate instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsmen and Apprenticeship Training Schemes. The instructional materials are developed and produced in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Trade Theory book, Trade Practical book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor guide, Wall Charts and Transparencies. Hon'ble Union Minister of Finance during the budget speech 2014-2015 mentioned about developing Skill India and made the following announcement "A national multi-skill programme called Skill India is proposed to be launched. It would skill the youth with an emphasis on employability and entrepreneur skills. It will also provide training and support for traditional professions like welders, carpenters, cobblers, masons, blacksmiths, weavers etc. Convergence of various schemes to attain this objective is also proposed." The Ministry of Labour & Employment constituted Mentor Councils (MCs) to revamp courses run / to be run under National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) in 25 sectors which will give a sustained skill based employability to the ITI trainees as the main objective of Vocational training. The ultimate approach of NIMI is to prepare the validated IMPs based on the exercises to be done during the course of study. As the skill development is progressive the theoretical content on a particular topic is limited to the requirement in every stage. Hence the reader will find a topic spread over a number of units. The test and assignment will enable the instructor to give assignments and evaluate the performance of a trainee. If a trainee possesses the same it helps the trainee to do assignment on his own and also to evaluate himself. The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a topic but also helps the trainees to grasp the technical topic quickly. The instructor guide enables the instructor to plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirement , Thus the availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps the trainer and management to impart an effective training. Hence it is strongly recommended that the Training Institutes/Establishments should provide at least one IMP per unit. This will be small, one time investment but the benefits will be long lasting. The Mason trade Theory 1st semester in Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate sector is one of the book develop by the core group members of the Mentor Councils (MCs). The 1st semester book includes Module 1- Wood Working, Module 2 - Layout Marking and levelling, Module 3 - Masonry construction. The Mason trade Theory 1st semester is the outcome of the collective efforts of Members of Mentor Council which includes academic/professional institutions (IITs etc.) , experts from field institutes of DGE&T, champion ITIs for each of the sectors, and also Media Development Committee (MDC) members and staff of NIMI. NIMI wishes that the above material (Trade Practical & Trade Theory) will fulfil to satisfy the long needs of the Trainees and Instructor and helps the trainees for their employability in vocational training. NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to all the Mentor Council members and Media Development Committee (MDC) members. Director , NIMI Chennai - 600 032 (iv)  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP (Trade Theory) for the trade of Mason under the Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate Sector Sector for Craftsman Training Scheme. This Book is prepared as per Revised Syllabus. MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE Dr.N. Dhang - Professor D/O Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagur, Chairman, Mentor Council. Shri. M.C. Sharma - Joint Director (TTC) DGE & T, New Delhi, Mentor, Mentor council. Smt. Arpana Singh - Training Officer NVT (W), Noida, Team leader, Mentor Council. Shri. K.N. Babu - Training Officer RVTI, Bangalore, Member, Mentor Council. Shri.G. Jayaraman - Retd. Assistant Training Officer MDC Member, NIMI. Member, Mentor Council. Shri. M.N. Venkatraman - Retd. Assistant Director of Training MDC Member, NIMI, Member, Mentor Council. Shri.R.N. Manna - Training Officer CSTARI, Kolkatta, Co-ordinator, Mentor Council. Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan - Training Officer, NIMI, Chennai-32, Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai. NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP Operators for their excellent and devoted services in the process of development of this Instructional Material. NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the development of this Instructional Material. NIMI is grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP. (v)  INTRODUCTION TRADE THEORY The manual of trade theory consists of theoretical information for the First Semester course of the Mason Trade. The contents are sequenced according to the practical exercise contained in the manual on Trade practical. Attempt has been made to relate the theortical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to the extent possible. This co-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities for performing the skills. The Trade theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual on trade practical. The indicating about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of this manual. It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integrated part of each exercise. The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room instruction. TRADE PRACTICAL The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop. It consists of a series of practical exercises to be completed by the trainees during the Second Semester course of the Machinist trade supplemented and supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The manual is divided into three modules. The distribution of exercises in the four modules are given below. Module 1 - Wood Working 13 Exercises Module 2 - Layout Marking and Levelling 07 Exercises Module 3 - Masonry Construction 20 Exercises 40 Exercises The skill training in the shop floor is planned through a series of practical exercises centered around some practical project. However, there are few instance where the individual exercise does not form a part of project. While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy to understand and carry out even by below average traninee. However the development team accept that there is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty for improving the manual. (vi)  CONTENTS THEORY Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No. Module 1: Wood Working 1.1.01 Role of mason, description of mason trade, General precautions and safety measures 1 1.1.02 Generate precautions and safety measures in workshop 8 1.1.03 General classification of joints 32 1.1.04 Hinges 42 1.1.05 Bolts 47 1.1.06 Drill (parts and functions) 52 1.1.07 Timber 78 1.1.08 Door Frame 82 1.1.09 Roofs 91 1.1.10 Wooden floors 99 1.1.11 Nails 101 1.1.12 Screws used in wood 104 1.1.13 Scaffolding 107 Module 2: Layout marking and levelling 1.2.01 Investigation and site clearance 113 1.2.02- 1.2.04 Setting out and fixing levels 114 1.2.05 -1.2.07 Setting out of building foundation 116 (vii)  Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No. Module: 3 Masonry construction 1.3.01-1.3.02 Building materials - bricks 119 1.3.03 Masonry tools Method of cutting bricks by using bolster and hammer 125 1.3.04 Brick masonry technical terms used Building materials - mortar 131 1.3.05 -1.3.13 Types of bond 136 1.3.14 Building materials, Cement, lime 147 1.3.15 Lintel 149 1.3.16-1.3.17 Requirement of food cement 151 Proportion of mixing P.C.C 1.3.18 Types of walls 156 (viii) Construction,Construction Material & Real estate Mason-Wood Working Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01 Role of mason Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to the role of mason. Any designing and construction project such as resi- Laying of bricks and block dential building, public, Industrial building, construc- The mason lay the brick or concrete block according to tion of canals, bridges, dams, drainage, water supply the bond such as English bond, Flemish bond etc. etc. are constructed by the mason. Laying of types of walls The role of mason The mason lay the corner wall, cross wall, T-Junction, Excavation of sail straight wall, obtuse wall, acute wall, pillars etc. The mason excavate the soil foundation. Plastering the surface of wall Mixing of concrete The mason prepare the surface wall for plastering and The mason mix the concrete according to prescribed ra- also plastering the surface. tio for P.C.C and R.C.C work. Laying D.P.C and rain water pipe Mixing of mortar The mason laying different D.P.C materials and fix rain The mason mix the cement mortar according to the pre- water pipe and also weathering course in building. scribed ratio of cement mortar for mason work, plastering Temporary structure: The mason fix the temporary structure of scaffolding, Racking shore, dead shore etc. Set out and lay house drainage. Construct a rubble ma- sonry wall. Construct a R.C.C. stair construct types of flooring. Description of mason trade Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the masons tools and its uses and safety state the building materials and its uses state the construction of corner wall and ‘T’ jucntion walls with brick and concrete block state construction of piers and plaster state fixing of doors and windows state construction of foundation upto DPC level and floors state construction of man hole and estimate. Identify the masons tools uses and its safety Identify and selection of the building materials also uses of the materials. Mason should be able to identify, select and practi- cally use of the following masonry tools. Brick: Qualities of good bricks -clamp brick, kiln bricks - sizes of bricks. Trowel - jointing board - steel square - spirit level- boat level - plumb rule - straight edge - gauge rule - Stone: Good qualities of building stone - classification of line and pins - bolster - club hammer - square and stone - uses of stones - natural bed of stone. bevel - axe - masons saw - carborundom stone - point- Sand: Pit sand - river sand - sea sand - qualities of good ing trowel - steel or wooden Hawk - wooden float - sand - classification of sand such as - fine sand - internal angle tool - external angle tool. coarse sand - gravelly sand - bulking of sand. Mason should be able to know safety precaution of Cement: Composition of ordinary cement and its function the following. - storage of cement - types of cement uses of cement. Safety for personal -safety for college and others safety for tools and equipments - safety for materials Lime : Types of lime - high calcium lime - general safety precautions. Magnesia lime: Hydraulic lime. 1 Classification of lime: good qualities of lime. Fixing of door and windows Timber: Classification of trees - method of cutting and Mason should be able to the method of fixing doors felling of timber - defects in timber - good qualities of tim- and window frames. ber - uses of timber - plywood - uses and advantages of plywood. Construction of foundation upto D.P.C level and floor Concrete: Types of concrete mixture - grade of concrete Mason should be able to construct a foundation up to -slumps of concrete - method of mixing concrete - curing the D.P.C level the concrete. Mason should be able to lay IPS, mosaic floor and Construction of corner wall and 'T' - junction wall tiled floor. with brick and concrete block Construction of man hole Mason should be able to construct the concrete wall Mason should be able to construction of man hole. in English and Flemish bond in various thickness (one brick and one and half brick thick) Estimate Mason should be able to construct one and half brick Mason should be able to calculate or estimate the quan- and one brick 'T' junction in English and Flemish bond tity of materials required for specific work. to a height of 3 feet or twelve courses. Construction of piers and plaster Mason should be able to construct attached pier and detached pier in English and Flemish bond. Mason should be able to plastering work with cement mortar. General Precautions and Safety Measures Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to describe the general precautions to be observed in a masonry (Building Constructor) yard. The general precautions to be observed in a masonry Yard or workshop. Accidents are quite frequent in the building industry. These accidents often result in lost time or the job, partial or total disability or even loss of life. Accidents can be reduced if each person works safely and uses the precautions that the nature work requires. Safety precautions can be classified 1. Safety for self 2. Safety for college and others 3. Safety for tools and equipments 4. Safety for materials. 1. Safety for Personal Always avoid loose clothing. Do not through any sharp instruments. Wear goggles while grinding the tools. Do not through brick or brick bats from top. Wear the safety shoes. (Fig.1) Check the scaffolding before you clamb up 2. Safety for college and others Give caution before lifting heavy units. 2 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01  Lifting heavy units by crow bar put some lever under- neath the crow bar. Combined job is carried out give caution time to time and do safe work. 3. Safety for Tools and equipment Use proper tools for proper work. Do not throw any tools either from top or at bottom. All the tools should be washed and oiled after use. All the tools should be cleaned and washed and kept in a safe place. 4. Safety for Materials Bricks should be stacked properly and bricks should not be allowed to be scattered on the work place. Protecting workmen from injury during the execution Cement bags are staked properly on the wooden planks job, safety precautions play a vital role. placed on the floor. Safety gloves :- Used for material handling welding ma- Provide sufficient space say 0.5 meter away from wall chine, gas cutter etc. (Fig.1) and place cement bags. Safety Helmets :- Use where sitework is going on at Cement godown should be free from air tight, other- different levels.(Fig.1) wise cement may get spoiled. Gumboots :- For cutting hard rock, concreting works, General safety measures Asphalting etc. (Fig.1) Electric wire / cables Safety Belt :- Used for workmen working on height, on High tension / Low tension electric line passing near outer sides of the building. by the slab, care should be taken while placing rein- Safety Goggles :- Used for while grinding for gas weld- forcement by working persons. ing, breaking of pavements etc as shown in figure. While placing concrete it may affect working persons. Site or work spot should have a list of following emer- Throwing of waste materials bricks bats, broken blocks gency telephone numbers. may lead to injury to persons working below. Fire 101 Scaffolding should be erected firmly and properly Ambulance 101 braced. Police 100 Walking on parapet wall may fall down due to in balance condition. Nearest doctor xxxxx Take more care while using the ladders because it may First Aid slip and fall down. First aid is an immediate and temporary care given to The lift pit is left unguarded the children of workers the victim of an accident, or sudden illness till the treat- may fall in the resulting in fatal accident. ment from the doctor is made available. Bar bending work helpers of bar benders to follow short First aid kit (Fig.2) cut method throw surplus steel pieces form top floor to ground and may cause fatal injuries. Cotton dressing Do not use faulty tools and equipment. Repair or re- General medicine place these tools. Keep the working area clean, many accidents are caused by litter underfoot. Personal safety protective kit (Fig.2) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01 3  Triangular bandage Potassium permanganate Pocket of cotton wool Roller bandage 25 mm Roller bandage 75 mm Iodine bottle Dettol Safety pins Scissors Knife Blade. Major possible injuries at site Mouth to mouth respiration should be started as quickly In construction work major injuries may causes in the as possible without any time loss. As shown in (Fig.5). following Bleeding Sudden stopage of respiration Fracture. Bleeding Usually bleeding can be controlled by direct pressure applied to the wound with a sterile dressing or any cloth. As shown in (Fig. 3). Fractures In the case of visible fractures and even a fracture is suspected, the adjacent joints should be immobilized. If the fracture is with bleeding it should be controlled. Care should be taken not to disturb the fractured bone. As shown in (Fig. 6). Sudden Respiratory Blockage In the case of electric shock, gas poisoning, suffoca- tion etc, where breathing is stopped immediate action is necessary. As shown in (Fig. 4). Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01 4  Excavation of soil for coloumn footings and for deep trenches. Sliding of earth or soil from sides of coloumn pits or deep trenches. As shown in (Fig. 7). First Aid treatment on snake bite Tie a cloth immediately around the patient in resting position. Snake bite Precautions and First aid Do not allow the affected portion of the body to move. Snake bite is the most common accident observed on Wash the wound with clear water. construction site. One should know whether bitten snake was poisonous or non - poisonous. As shown in (Fig. 8). Take for medical treatment. As shown in (Fig. 10). Scorpion stings Poisonous Snake Usually two types of scorpions red and black. Only two prominent. Marks of the fangs can be seen after the bite. Non - Poisonous Snake Two rows of marking of small teeth can be seen after biting. As shown in (Fig 9). Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01 5  Tie the cloth immediately upper portion. In construction site the waste materials such as broken brick bats, waste concrete or other debris should not Take for medical treatment nearest doctor. be thrown from top to the bottom of the ground. Accidents during slab concreting Otherwise accidents may cause as shown in (Fig. 13). Column reinforcement cage may collapse. Lift scaffolding means vertical probs not fixed well may collapse while concreting. Wrong signal to lift operator and mis operation of lift may lead to accident. As shown in (Fig.11). Careless way of curing may cause accidents as shown in (Fig.14) Accidents due to Electric cables Careful working near cable area. All the necessary precaution to be taken. Otherwise accidents may happens as shown in (Fig. 12). Working on ladder may slip and painter may fall. Use safety belt anchored to hooks. Co-worker to hold the ladder firmly. Ladder should be anchored properly as shown in (Fig.15) Causes of Electrical accidents 6 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01  The common causes of Electrical accidents at site. Insertion of the loose wires in sockets without a plug pin. This is the most common practice, and the cause of most of the electrical accidents at construction site. Insertion of loose wires is mostly done by the unskilled workers, helpers, etc. As shown in (Fig.16). Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.01 7 Construction,Construction Material & Real estate Mason-Wood Working Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.02 General precautions and safety measures in Workshop Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to know the general precautions to be observed in a carpentry shop. The general precautions to be observed in a carpen- Never try to feed the stock faster than the cutting try shop are as follows. capacity of the machine and always it is advisable to Always avoid loose clothing. use a push-stick to force the stock beyond the rotating wheel. While using cutting tools such as chisels and care should be taken to see that the cutting action is While working on a circular saw, avoid always standing performed in the direction away from your body. in line with the plane of the rotating blade and always keep the hands at a distance from the blade. Tools which are not used, should always be kept in their respective places. They should not be allowed to be Before start of the cutting, allow the saw to attain the full scattered on the work place. speed. The tools should always be kept well-sharpened since Adjust the guides properly before using a band saw. a blunt or dull tool is apt to slip and cause injury. Feed the stock directly against the moving band and do Boards and other wooden pieces carrying nails should not press from sides never be allowed to remain on the floor, since it may While working on a lathe, the job should be properly cause any bodily injury and injury to foot. held between centres, the tool rest should be properly The shop floor should always be kept clean and free adjusted to correct height and close to the work. from debris otherwise it may cause us to slip over and Employ the correct spindle speed while working on a fall on it. lathe, hold firmly the turning tools, wear goggles while working on wood turning machines. All modern machines are provided with proper guards for their moving parts and these guards should be fully While working on a spindle moulder feed the work by utilised. firmly holding it. No machine should be operated with out the permission Avoid use of stocks with knots. of the shop-in-change. While working on a jointer never use a stock less than The shop floor are around machineries and it should 30cm in length. Feed it in the correct direction of grains always be free from any obstructions. keeping the hands away from the rotating knife and use proper guards. Prior to starting the machines, ensure that the guards are in proper position and are well-secured. __________ Carpenter's pencil & marking instruments (Tools) Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the meaning of marking state the uses of pencil state constructional features and uses of steel rule state constructional features and uses of collapsible rule and folding rule state the uses of measuring tape. Marking off or layout is carried out to indicate the location of operation to be done and provide guidance during sequence of operations. – Marking out is done with pencil or scriber. – Carpenter's pencil usually is an oval cross-section. (Fig 1) – It is sharpened with a chisel. – The pencil is not used for an accurate work. 8 – Suitable pencil hardness for marking out on 'H.B' 'H' and Collapsible Carpenter’s rule (Zig-Zag) (Fig 3) 'F' It is also called Zig-Zag rule. It consists of 10 pieces each The Rule (Steel) (Fig 2) loosely rivetted to one another. Each piece is 10cm long and total length is 1 metre. – In the workshop wooden or steel rules are used Longer distances can be measured with this rule. Some – The division in cm is 30cm long and sub divided in mm times it contains British system measurements on the (2) and half mm (3). other side. – The division in inches is 12 inches (12") long twelve inches equals one english foot 12" = 1' – The Sub division is accurate in 1/16" Fig 4 in 1/32" (5) and In 1/64" (6). – For the conversion of parts of an Inch in to the metric system (with units: m, cm, mm) a conversion table might be useful. 1/16" = 1.6 mm 2/16" = 1/8" = 3.2 mm 3/16" = 4.8 mm 4/16" = 1/4" = 6.35mm Folding Rule (Fig 4) 5/16" = 8.0mm It has four folds each of which is 6 inches or 150mm long. 6/16" = 3/8" 9.5mm It is joined in a plastic a metallic hinge. After taking 7/16" = 11.1mm measurement, keep the scale folded and free from dust. It is easily carried in packets. 8/16" = 1/2" = 12.7mm 9/16" = 14.3mm 10/16" = 5/8" = 15.9mm 11/16" = = 17.5mm 12/16" = 3/4" = 19.05mm 13/16" = = 20.6mm 14/16" = 7/8" = 22.2mm 15/16" = = 23.8mm 16/16" = 1" = 25.4mm Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 9 Tape measurement Fig (5) Tape measures are used for longer measurements. The tape is made of steel and is durable and accurate. When not in use, the tape should be kept in the box. Division are made in centimeters or in inches. Tape measure has a sliding end piece for inside and outside measurement. Carpenter’s work bench Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state constructional feature of work bench state the uses of work bench state the specification of work bench for single and double man working. Work bench (Fig 1) It is a heavy table of rigid construction made of hard To avoid slipping while planing operation s a bench stop wood. Two or four carpenters vices are fitted on the is fixed which can be raised or lowered. Bench stops opposite sides to hold the jobs. One Jaw of the vice is are made of wood pieces and has teeth at its one end. secured to the table and the other is kept movable. It is used for supporting the work during wood working operations. (Fig 2) Shelves or racks can also be provided on the table. Swivel rest is provided to keep the planes when it is idle The length is 120cm to 180 cm and width 90 cm for and not in use. single man work bench and the width is 120 cm for double man work bench. Apron is the longer piece of wood nailed on the longer side of the work bench for rigidity. The bench is mostly useful to cut and saw the woods, to plane the woods, ripping tenons, chiselling out The level of the work bench surface would be uniform wastes and for all other wood working purposes. and even. The tool well is in the middle for the work bench and is Care should be taken to see that while nailing sawing slightly in lower level to accommodate the working and chiselling there would not be any marks left on the tools. surface. 10 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Carpenters' vice At the end of this lesson you, shall be able to state the constructional features of carpenter vice state the uses of carpenter vice state the size of carpenter vice. Wood must be held steadily. If it is to be accurately sawn, chiselled and planed. – For this reason carpenter’s work bench consist different types of vice. – Most commonly fitted bench vice consist of two metal Jaws to hold the work – One Jaw of the vice is fixed to the work bench – The other Jaw is movable parallel to the fixed jaw – To operate this there is a threaded shaft and a handle. – Two wooden blocks are used inside the Jaws to protect the work from damage There are two types of vice 1 Quick release vice 2 Saw vice – In the quick release vice moveable jaw is quickly released and get clamped with fixed Jaw. – A box nut is provided in its threaded shafts for the quick release system (Fig 1). – The jaw is made of cast iron. – The threaded shaft is made of steel. – The vice is specified by the width of the Jaw. Precautions Purpose of Saw vice 1 Vices should not be used as ANVIL. – The sharpening of saw teeth the shaping of saw teeth 2 The thread shaft and box nut should lubricated. and setting of teeth are done with the aid of this vice 3 The handles should not be hammered to tighten the jaw. – The Jaws of the saw clamp , should grip the saw 2-3 mm below gullet teeth. Constructional feature of saw vice. (Fig 2) – It is made of wood or steel the Jaws are long enough to hold the saws while sharpening as teeth. – The Jaws are hinged so as to make ways to close and open the Jaw. – It is not useful for any other kind of works. Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 11 Try square and Mitre square Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to name the parts of try square state the use of try square name the parts of mitre square state the use of mitre square. Try square The try square is a precision Instrument. – which is used to check squareness of a surface. – the accuracy of measurements by a try square about 0.002 mm per 100 mm length. – which is accurate enough for most work shop purposes. – the blade is fixed to the stock at 900. (Fig 1) Uses The try square is used – to check the flatness of the surface. (Fig 2) – To check the squareness of edge. (Fig 3) – To check the inside squareness. (Fig 4) – Try squares are made of hardened steel. – The stock is made of hard wood or cast iron a mild steel. – The try squares are specified according to their lengths. – Try square blade lengths are available in 100, 150, 200, 250mm and 300mm. 12 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Mitre square (Fig 1) – To mark 450 and to test 450 by mitre square is used at the end of its stock and at the cutting of the blade. It is fixed permanently by rivets, the length of its blade is 200 mm to 350mm. There are graduations on its blade. – To test the surface for trueness of flatness. Hold the edge of the blade firmly against the surface. (Fig 5) – The only difference between try square and mitre square is that the blade and stock are fixed at 900 in the try square and 450 in the mitre square. – The try square and mitre square is also useful for angle 450 , 900 and 1350 (Fig 2). – To make the same test in many places on the surface: Across and along the grain of the wood and at an angle to it as shown in (Fig 6). – The mitre square is useful for setting out mitres at 45 testing chamfers and other work 450 or 1350. – The blade is permanently fixed so the stock is at an angle of 45 0 to the length of the blade which is 200mm to 350mm. – To check ends for squareness hold the handle against – To scribe along the top edge. (Fig 7) one edge and the blade against the end to be tested. (Fig 3). – The square fits a good corner snugly. (Fig 4) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 13 Saw horse or trestle Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state constructional feature of saw horse state application of a saw horse. – Saw horse is used when sawing long reapers. – It consists of two wide piece of timber joined at a top closely and at the bottom widely as shown in (Fig 1). – It is made of hard wood. – Long piece of timber or wood piece by placing piece on the trestle as shown (Fig 2), along the grain. – For short planks a single horse or Trestle can be used by clamping or across the grains. – Holding steady with a knee or foot shown in (Fig 3). – When sawing thinner planks across the grains use more support between the trestles. __________ Straight edge Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the constructional features of straight edge state the uses of straight edge state the size of the straight edge. – Straight edge made of steel or wood with perfectly straight parallel edges, although some times has only one straight edge. (Fig 1) Uses: For testing the straightness of surface and edges. Its length is 1500mm to 2000mm breadth 50mm to 70mm and thickness 20mm. 14 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Kinds of Saws Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the various types of saws state the purpose of various types of saws state the specific uses of special saws. Types of Saw 1 Straight cutting saw 2 Curve cutting saw. Straight cutting saw 1 Rip saw 2 Cross cut saw – Length of blade is 50 to 70cm 3 Hand saw – It has 3 to 4 teeth per cm 4 Panel saw – Cutting angle of the teeth 900 5 Tenon saw – Teeth has different shape to that of rip saw – Finer pitch blade is preferred for hard wood. Blade with 6 Dove tail saw. course pitch is used for soft wood. Curve cutting Saw Hand Saw (Fig 3) 1 Bow saw 2 Coping saw 3 Fret saw 4 Compass saw 5 Nest saw – Length of the blade is less in hand saw than in the rip 6 Key hole saw. saw. Rip Saw (Fig 1) – Which is used for lighter work. – Used for sawing along the grain Panel Saw (Fig 4) – Teeth of rip saw vary in size as per the need of the fitness of work to be done – It has two teeth per centimetre length – length of the blade is 50 to 70cm – Specified by its length It is the most commonly used saw – It is available in many sizes – Teeth angle is less than 900 – It has 3 to 4 teeth per cm – It has 3 to 5 teeth per cm. –- length is 50cms – Specifically used for cutting panels for door shutters. Tenon Saw (Fig 5) Cross cut saw (Fig 2) – Used for cutting across the grains Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 15 – It is rectangular in shape Fret saw (Fig 9) – Length is 25 to 40cm long – Has very fine blade 150mm to 180mm long held in a – It has 5 to 8 teeth per cm. steel frame of 300mm to 500mm – It is used for finer works like tenon – Used for cutting thin woods. – Main use is making short and straight cuts – A reinforcing strip on back is provided at the top to avoid bending of blade. – Closed handle. Dove tail saw (Fig 6) Compass saw (Fig 10) – Has a narrow tapering blade 300mm to 450mm fitted in a handle. – By appearance is like tenon saw – Used for cutting large interior curves – Its blade is thinner and narrower – It is necessary to bore a hole in the job to start the saw – Its wooden handle is open and free to move to full length – 8 to 12 teeth per 2.5cm length. of blade – It is used for finer work – Specifically used for cutting tongues for dove tail joints – Length of blades is 20 to 30cm and carries 6 points/cm Bow saw (Fig 7) Nest of saw (Fig 11) – It consists of three blades with detachable handles – The blades are pruning blade, compass blade and key way hole blade, which are used cutting curve – Length of blade is 25 to 40cm. – It consists of frame made of wood, carrying, connect- ing bar a string, lever and two handles on both sides – Used to cut thin curves and profiles having quick bends – Length of blades 20 to 30 cm and carries 6 points/cm. Coping saw (Fig 8) Key hole saw (Fig 12) – It has 20 to 30cm long blade – It is 6mm wide near handle and 3mm wide at the toe – Used for Intricate and Internal works – Length of blade is 25 to 35cm. – Has very fine blade held in stiff wire frame – Used for cutting sharp and quick curves Internal and externally – Length of blade is 25cm. 16 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Planes Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to name the various types of planes state the uses of the various planes state constructional feature of various planes specify the planes. A plane is a hand tool used for smoothing or shaping pieces This is used when the surface has to be planed further to of wood. smoothness. Common types are - The size is 240 x 66 x 65mm 1 Jackplane - The width of cutting iron is 48mm 2 Smoothing plane 3 Trying plane - The cutting edge is sharpened slightly oval across the iron. The angle of the cutting iron is 30°. 4 Toothing plane 5 Finishing plane 3 Trying plane (Fig 3) 6 Router plane 7 Plough plane 1 Jack plane (Fig 1) It is larger and longer than other planes. Its length is 600 to 700mm. The blade is 46 to 56mm wide. It has double iron. This is used for producing a true and straight surface. 4 Toothing plane (Fig 4) This plane is used for planing the job to size quickly and truly. The size is 240 mm x 66 x 47mm. The angle of cutting iron is 45° and the cutting iron is sharpened in a curve. The mouth of the plane is big enough to accommodate thicker wood shavings. The cutting iron further projects outside than in other planes. 2 Smoothing plane (Fig 2) The purpose of this is to prepare a rough gluing surface. The cutting angle is set at 70° to 80°. The cutting edge is a series of teeth formed like ‘V’. The plane is used diagonally across the work in both directions and in along the grain. Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 17 5 Furnishing plane (Fig 5) 7 Plough plane (Fig 7) This is slightly smaller than smoothing plane. Its cutting angle is 45 to 50°. It prevents the tearing of wood and gives a good finish. This is also called reform-finishing planes. 6 Router planes (Fig 6) This is used to form grooves parallel with grain. The cutting- irons are available from 3mm to 16mm wide. It has no cap It is used to clean and level grooves and recesses. It is iron. The depth of groove can be adjusted by a thumb used across the grain. The cutting iron is lowered after screw. A guide parallel to the plane controls the distance each cut until required depth is reached. of the groove from the edge of the work. Marking gauge Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the uses of marking gauge state constructional features of marking gauge. For layout lines parallel to one edge of work piece marking point at the end. It is always advisable to measure the gauge is used. distance from the spur to the face of the block, with an ‘ordinary rule’. Construction (Fig 1) The gauge is set by loosing the screw and the stock is shifted to the distance required from the spur. Measure- ment are taken from a rule. After setting the screw is tightened while gauging, the stock is firmly held against the wood and pushed in forward direction. (Fig 2) The marking gauge can be made of wood or steel. The gauge consists of square, wooden bar or beam on which wooden block or stock is sliding. This block can be fastened at any required measurement by use of a thumb screw. In better form of gauges the stock is protected from wear by a piece of brass set flush with surface. The bar is graduated in millimeter and provided with a spur or steel 18 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Carpenter’s Hammer Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the uses of an carpenter’s hammer identify the parts of a carpenter’s hammer and state their function name the type of carpenter’s hammers specify the carpenters hammer. A carpenter’s hammer is a hand tool used for striking purpose while 1 punching 2 striking 3 pulling - The major parts of a hammer are a head and a handle - The head is made of drop-forged carbon steel - The wooden handle must be capable of absorbing shock. Parts of Hammer head (Fig 1) Handle Pein Cheek Eye hole Cheek The cheek is the striking portion slight convexly is given to it to avoid digging of the edge. Pein (Fig 2) The pein is the other end of the head. It is used for shapping and forming. Work like Rivetting and bending the pein is of different shapes like 1 Ball pein (hammer) 2 Cross pein (hammer) 3 Straight pein (hammer) 4 Claw (hammer) 5 Tacks (hammer) Eye hole An eye hole is meant for the handle. It is shaped to fit the handle rigidly. The wedges fix the handle in the eye hole. Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 19 Specification Carpenters’ hammer (Fig 6) Carpenter’s hammer’s are specified by their weight and the The hammer head has a rectangular or oval hole which is shape of the pein. Their weight varies from 125gms to tapered on the inside. The shape of this hole offers a good 1500gms. hold for the handle when wedged. Claw hammer (Fig 3) The handle must firmly be secured in the head to prevent accidents. The wedge is driven diagonally into the end of It is made of cast steel and carries the shirking face at one the handle. The wood splits and is pressed against the end and the claw at the other. The face is used to drive the inner wall of the hole. nail into the wood and other shirking purposes and the claw is used for extracting the nails out of the wood. Its size is designated by its weight and it varies from 0.25kg to 0.75 kg. In carpenter shop it is called as warrington hammer. To Ball pein hammer (Fig 4) extend the iron frames, for bending and for other works it is It is made of cast steel and weight of about 110 gm to 910 used. Its weight varies from 220gms to 910gms. grams. It is also called as engineers’ hammer. One side Straight pein hammer (Fig 7) of it is in the shape of ball and hence the name it is also used The hammer head is straight to the hammer handle. The for riveting. bottom part of the head is large and tapering towards end side. It is used in rivetting and to extend metal frames. Its weight is 110gm and varies up to 900gms. Cross pein hammer (Fig 5) The head part of this hammer is across the handle and Tack hammer (Fig 8) hence the name. It is used for all light works. It is lesser in weight than all other hammers. The hammer Due to this magnetism nails and screws are taken easily head is straightly fitted to the handle of hammer. It has and is used to hammer or strike very thin nails. Some times slight magnetic properties. it is called as pin hammer. It is weight is 100gms. 20 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02  Precaution Make sure the handle is properly fitted. Select a hammer with correct weight suitable for the job. Check the head and handle for any cracks. Ensure the face of the hammer is free from oil and grease. Winding strips Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the use of winding strip state constructional features of a winding strip. Winding strip is a pair of perfectly straight pieces of timber, The top edges of the sticks are sighted and if they are not with parallel edges. Usually they are about 375 mm long parallel, the surface is said to be uneven, or they are said and 35 mm wide and 20 mm thick. to be `in winding’. Testing the job for flatness, one stick is placed across one Again if the high levels of the job are planed the winding end and the other stick across the other end of the piece strips are placed on the job and the tops of the strips being tested.(Fig 1) coincide then the level is said to be ‘out of winding’ and is perfectly flat. To check the surface for wrinkles or unevenness breadth wise or lengthwise winding strip is used. (Fig 2) Oil stone Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the different types of oil stones state the uses of oil stone slips. To put a keen cutting edge on cutting tools a process called “HONING” always carried out after grinding. Honing or sharpening stones are divided into 1 Natural oil stones 2 Artificial oil stones 3 Slip stones Natural oil stones (Fig 1) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 21 Natural oil stones are quarried (Mostly in United States of Oils (Fig 4) America) and can be obtained. Usually in two grades hard and soft grained. Oil of non drying qualities should be used during the sharpening process to prevent clogging a glazing of the Soft oil stones stone by floating of the particles of steel. Oil also prevents over heating, by friction. Nearest foot oil extract from the The soft stones has fairly coarse grit. Water should be feet of cattles generally used on oil stone. If allowed to dry used for all course grained. they will become hard and brittle and they will become Natural oil stones glazed smooth more readily. It kept in a dry place. It is advisable to keep them oiled and in a covered box (Fig 4). For natural oil stones, oil should be used for fine grained Any irregularities or globe may be removed by grinding on stones out of two “WASHITA” and “ARKASAS” oil stones. the side of grind stone or by rubbing down with a wet sand ARKASAS produces the keen cutting edge and is most stone. Brick or “Emery” powder mixed with water on a hard expensive. flat surface they may be cleaned with “KEROSENE”. Artificial oil stones (Fig 2) Artificial oil stones are usually made in three grades coarse, Medium and fine they are made from “CARBORUNDUM” or “CORUNDUM” the combination stone is made up with COARSE on one side for wearing down quickly and fine grade on the other side for producing keen cutting edge. Slip stones (Fig 3) Oil stones slips or slip stones are pieces of oil stones of various shapes used for sharpening tools with curved and shaped cutting edges which can not be honed on the flat surface of an ordinary oil stones. 22 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Chisels commonly used in carpentry Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to name various types of chisels commonly used state the uses of various types of chisels specify the chisels. All chisels consist of four main parts 1 The handle 2 The blade 4 Paring chisel (Fig 4) 3 Tang It is most suitable for all paring work such as finishing off 4 Ferrule joints. It has an extra long thin blade with bevelled edges. It should never be used with a mallet. The handle is made The blade of a chisel is made of forged tool steel The cutting of beech and octagonal in section. angle is 25°. Size varies from 3mm to 50mm. TYPES OF CHISELS 1 Bench firmer chisel (Fig 1) This is used for general chiseling purposes. Strongly made, it can be used for light chiseling with a mallet. The 5 Socket firmer or socket mortise (Fig 5) blade is rectangular in section. The handle is made of beech or ash. It has a brass ferrule. Tang is fixed inside It is used for extra heavy work, the blade is thicker and the ferrule. It is available from 3mm to 50mm. (Fig 1) stronger than other chisels. It is able to withstand the blows of the mallet, and level out the cover of mortises. The ash handle provided with ferrule is fitted in socket in the blade. Size varies from 3mm to 50mm. 2 Bevel edge firmer chisel (Fig 2) Chisels of which the blades are of a circular section are called It is more convenient for lighter works and paring works, and in place were ordinary firmer chisel cannot be used GOUGES such as cleaning up corners and joints. Bevel edge firmer chisel has two edges bevelled along its length which OR makes it lighter and the edges thinner. size varies from 3 HOLLOW CHISELS mm to 50mm. According to the position of the cutting bevel on the blade, there are two main types Inside bevelled gouge (Fig 6) outside bevelled gouge (Fig 7). 3 Registered firmer chisel (Fig 3) It is used for heavy work such as mortising. The use of mallet is necessary here. It is stronger than ordinary firmer chisel. It has a thicker blade and iron ferrule, at both ends of handle. A leather washer is provided between the shoulder of the blade and the handle to act as shock absorber when the chisel is hit by the mallet. Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 23 Mortise chisel (Fig 8) The mortise chisel is designed to with stand hard, rough wear and the thickness of the blade permits the leverage necessary to clear the mortise and keep the blade true. It has strong handle and the blade is fitted into it by a tang as with the socket and tang chisel. Common sizes of mortise chisels are 4, 5, 6, 8, 10,12, 14,16, 20 mm in width. The chisel blade is ground slightly taper from the face towards the back and from the cutting edge towards the handle to avoid friction. Marking tools Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state constructional features of marking knife and steel scriber state uses of marking knife and steel scriber. Marking knife (Fig 1) It is made of steel fashioned to a point at one end and a sharp blade at the other end to form a cutting edge. The blade or knife is used for marking cut lines where a vertical shoulder is to be cut with a saw or chisel. The point is used for marking distances and scribing lines. Steel scriber (Fig 2) A steel scriber should be sharp at its point. It is used for scribing lines on which a chisel cut or a saw cut is made. The scriber should not be used as an awl. Do not strike the handle with a hammer. Marking knife is also used for marking and scribing. It is a steel blade fixed in a wooden handle. it serves the same purpose as that of scriber. (Fig 3) 24 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 The Mallet Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the constructional feature of mallet state the use of mallets state specification of mallets. The mallets are made of hard wood and it is used in place of hammer. But the difference is head only. Mallet are used for driving wood chisels and for adjusting wooden planes. It is used for assembling and dismantling wooden works and for adjusting stop dogs in the work bench. The handle is made of beech or ash with straight grained fibres. The head is made of hard wood with twisted fibres. handle is driven in from the top and is tapered in its width. This prevents splitting of the wood. Its head is either round or square. (Fig 3) A special type of mallet is made of ‘Ligno stone’ which is The mallet is held upside down and dropped once or twice made of special wood that is treated with heat and high on the work bench, the head of the mallet will be tightened pressure. on the handle. Some mallets have removable handles (Fig 1) which can be taken out of the head easily so that parts can be stored easily. Fig 2. The striking faces of mallet heads are so bevelled so that they can hit the chisel. For most purposes a head of 110 mm long, 80mm wide and 60 mm thick is suitable. The __________ Mitre box and mitre block Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the use of mitre box and mitre block. The mitre box (Fig 1) The mitre box is built up of three pieces of wood, one forming the base and two parallel sides. It has saw kerfs in the sides at 45o to the left and right to guide the saw in cutting mitres (cutting 45o angle). The mitre block (Fig 2) This is used to mitre small sections of wood accurately. It is made of two pieces of wood with 3 cuts in the top piece. 45o cuts left and right and 90o cut in the centre to help in sawing accurately square. (Fig 2) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 25 Mitre boxes and mitre blocks should be made of very hard wood and the saw cuts should be made with same saw which is used in them. Plumb bob Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the use of plumb bob state the construction of a plumb bob. This tool consists of a solid brass or metal cylinder with a pointed end which is attached to a suspending line so that its tip always pointing vertically down. Its upper part is a small wooden block with a hole drilled in its centre so that the line with the cylinder on it can be pulled up on lowered down through the hole. (Fig 1) The diameter of the wooden block is slightly greater than the diameter of cylinder so that the cylinder can move freely up and down without touching the work piece. The main use of the plumb bob is a more accurate replacement for the vertical spirit level and also to transfer points down vertically in marking. (Fig 2) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 26 Shooting board and planing trough Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the uses of shooting board state the use of planing trough. Shooting board Planing troughs A shooting board is used to plane the end side without Two wooden planks planed at an angle of 45o at ends and breaking the edges. (Fig 1) screwed at the ends. There is a block kept at one end. Door frames are held in this and then planed. Similarly The procedure is to hold the part to be planed is fixed in the square wooden blocks are held in this and planed to round shooting board and is held in carpenter’s vice. Then it is them. (Fig 2) planed smoothly without breaking the edges. Trammel points Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the constructional features of trammel points state the uses of trammel points. Trammel points are used for laying out larger circles and Sometimes one of the points can be replaced by a pencil arcs. lead.(Fig 2) Two sliding points are fastened to a wooden batten or a steel rod at any distance required from each other by turning the knurled screw. The point is fastened to the batten or steel rod. (Fig 1) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 27 Spirit level Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the construction of spirit level state the uses and features of spirit level. A spirit level is used principally by the carpenter. It consists of a piece of wood (common wood for spirit level is Teak wood) or aluminum into which a spirit level glass is fastened horizontally and vertically. As the glass tube is not filled, a bubble always remains, when the bubble is in the centre of glass indicated by lines marked on it, the structure on which the level rests is absolutely horizontal or vertical. (Fig 1) The cleat (Fig 4) This is made of hard wood. This is 50mm longer than the In some spirit level there will be two glass tubes perpen- plank to be tightened. Along with this, two wooden pieces dicular to the horizontal glass tube. This will be called as are screwed on both the ends. The wood to be placed and plumb glass and is used to test the perpendicularity of tightened is kept in between the wooden pieces and the walls and windows. (Fig 2) wedges are tightly inserted. The plank to be lightened is now tightly held. Bench hold fast (Fig 3) In wooden planks to make holes the planks are held tightly with out moving by this equipment. The stem is made of cast iron, screw rod, handle, hand one made of steel. This may be fixed in holes of the work table and planks can be tightened. Mortise gauge Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the construction of mortise gauge state the features of the mortise gauge state the uses of mortise gauge. A mortise gauge is a marking gauge with two spurs. The two spurs can be spaced at different distances and mark two parallel lines at a time. (Fig 1) This is made of hard wood and has an adjusting screw in the end of the beam. The screw moves one of the spurs up and down or as desired. The other side of the beam is fitted with a single point as on the ordinary marking gauge. The gauge is used for marking mortises and tenons, and similar joints using parallel lines. Stem/beam and stock made of beech wood. Thumb screw made of box wood. Pin or spur made of steel. 28 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Files and Rasps Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the difference between file and rasp state the parts of file state the classification of files explain the method of cleaning wood file and rasp. Files and rasps are used generally in the wood working The file is a tool consisting of a blade of steel with fine trade for shaping and forming irregular pieces and curves, cutting teeth on its surface. for which plane cannot be used. This surface is hardened. File: The wood file is used for smoothing roughly prepared The tang is hammered out a point, which is not hardened. surfaces. (Fig 1) The tang is fastened into the handle. The handle is made of beech or ash and provided with steel ferrule. The ferrule avoids the handle from cracking. Rasp: The rasp is used for quick removal of much wood. Classification of files (Fig 2) a) Teeth patterns b) Coarseness c) Shapes a) Teeth patterns (Fig 4) Difference between a rasp and file is (1) The teeth for a rasp are completely separated from each other. (2) The rasp is used for roughening and for quick removing of a thick layer of wood. Parts of a file (Fig 3) The way the blade of a file is toothed is called cut "Single 1 Blade cut" means a series of cuts, all running parallel at angle of 2 Handle about 75o to the axis of the file. 3 Steel ferrule "Double cut" consist of two series of cutting teeth. 4 Tang The first series of teeth put on a double cut file is called 5 Shoulder (heel) "overcut' which makes an angle of 45o to the file axis. 6 Length on inches The second series of teeth over the first series is called "input which various an angle of 70o to the file axis. Coarseness (Fig 5) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 29 The coarseness of a file is defined by the distance between Flat file: The flat file is shaped like the hand file, except the teeth. for its tapering width. The nearer the rows of teeth, the smoother the file. Both files are double cut. The designation for the cut is ranging from According to the shape, one distinguished round, triangu- lar, square, half round, flat and hand files - Coarse cut Rasps are of similar shapes. - Bastard cut Files, generally in use by the carpenter are - Second cut - the wood rasp - Smooth cut - the coarse hand file Files and rasps should always be provided with handles. If a handle gets damaged, it should be - the smooth wood file. replaced as soon as possible. They are used in this successive order. File shapes (Fig 6) Cleaning files: The teeth of a file should be sharp. If the teeth are worn or dulled, less wood will be scraped away. Hand file: The hand file has a rectangular cross sectors, (Fig 7) parallel in width throughout its length, and tapering in thickness towards the point. It is generally used as a coarse double cut wood file. It is used on wood which has been rasped first. Clogging by wood dust and wood resin also impedes filing. Files need cleaning in order to keep the cutting edges in good condition. This is done with a "file card" which is a metal brush fixed on a wooden supporting handle. Move the file card obliquely to clean the teeth of the file. Wood files are easily clogged up with resin (a component of wood). After use the files and rasps should be stored. The handle should be undamaged and fastened securely to the tang. Never use a file as a chisel or a screw driver and avoid dropping it. 30 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 Tool Box Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the use of tool box in shop floor state the necessity of tool box. Hand tools should be maintained properly with sharpness and in such a way that they serve for us for a longer duration. Hand tool are to be kept neatly, without rust, for that we have to keep it separately in a tool box or a cup board. The sketch shown in a tool box with so many separation for long tools, short tools, sharp tools heavy tools, etc. By keeping the tools in this box separated the tools can be saved for a long time without rusting, and without abrading each other and without becoming blunt. (Fig 1) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.02 31 Construction,Construction Material & Real estate Mason-Wood Working Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.03 General classification of joints Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the various classification of joint used in wood work state the places where the joints are used. Lengthening joints Some common joints These joints are used for joining small lengths of wood Dowel joint pieces end-to-end to obtain large lengths many lap, butt Dowels are thin small round sticks made from hard wood and scarf joints come under this category. and are employed in various ways. Some common uses Widening joints of dowels include their use as reinforcements for butt and mitre joints as a substitute for mortise and tenon joints in These joints are used for joining wood pieces along their small articles in securing loose parts to a product and as edges in order to obtain increased width. Rebate, butt, strengtheners to circular, square and irregular forms. tongue and groove are quite commonly used for this While making a dowel joint it should be ensured that the purpose. locations in the dowel holes in the two mating part are in Framing joints perfect alignment. These joints are used to connect wood pieces at desired Grooved joints inclinations and commonly employed in frame work. This Many types of grooved joints are used in wood work. In category includes, mortise and tenon, bridle, rafter, mitre, some other the grooves run parallel to the grains and in lap dovetail, notched and scarf joints. other across the grains called ‘dadoes’. some of the Box joints grooved joints are concealed and some are open. A common example of this is tongue and grooved joint, which These joints enable joining of wooden planks and scantlings you can easily notice in filling of door panels. Other grooved at desired inclination so as to obtain box shaped structures joints include rebate and spline joints. and wooden cases. Lap rebated open and secret dovetail, corner having mitre haunched mortise and tenon and Mitre joints corner locking joints are commonly used for this purpose. These joints can be readily noted on the corners of picture Circular joint frames. Their use facilitates such joints at which no end grains of the wood pieces are visible. Apart from glueing, These joints are used for connecting wood pieces to form these joints are usually strengthened by means of dowels, a hollow cylindrical structure. The joints commonly used nails or hard wood splines etc. for this purpose are butt, hammer head key, blind mortise tenon scarf and dowelled joints. Half lap joints Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state meaning of half lap joints state various types half-lap joints state purpose and uses of half lap joints. Half lap joints - When the intersecting member cross each other at centre they are known as centre half lap joint or cross - A half lap joint consists of half the thickness cut away half lap joint. from one component and half the thickness cut away from the other. - When it is fixed at the ends it is known corner half lap joint. (Fig 1) - In flat frame construction, leg and rail construction for lengthening posts, when building sheds, the corner half - If it is in dovetail joint it is called half-lap dovetail joint. lap joints is stronger than the tee-half lap. - Dove tails joints are always stronger and offer greater - Half lap joints are frequently used to connect two resistance to tension. wooden pieces such as boards, frames where an even surface is required. 32  The dovetailed half lap It is used for connecting the ends of cross rails in frame like construction where an outside strain occurs. This joint can be separated in only one direction. (Fig 4) - Half lap joints are glued and if needed are reinforced by means of concealed screws. - It is to be noted that a halved joint is always lapped but a lapped joint is not always halved. Tee-half lap Joint It is used in frames where the end of a rail meets another piece some distance from the end both faces of the pieces finishing flush. The joint is used in cabinet frames and where a strong joint is not required. (Fig 2) Mitre half lap joint The mitre- half lap joint is used to hide end grains of woods in picture frames, mouldings rafter and drip caps etc. (Fig 5) There are some heavy duty half lap joints which will resist pulling stresses in one direction. Straight bevel half laps are used for lengthening wall plates, joints and rafters. Cross half-lap joint It is used where the members cross each other and the faces of the pieces are required to be flush as in diagonal stays of tables and chairs, and frames of cheap panelled doors. (Fig 3) Wooden trysquare Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the construction of wooden try square state uses of wooden try square. The try square is fully made of wood. Its handle is slightly Without changing the angle 90o the handle and the blade heavier than the blade. The length of blade is 600mm (24") are diagonally attached, by a brace. Angle of wooden try and width is 50mm (2”). The length of the handle is 400mm square is 90o. some times up to the length of 450mm. (Fig 1) Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.03 33 Uses This is used for carpentry works and for building construc- tion works. Large and wide planks are used to scribe the works. Housing joints Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the meaning of housing joint identify its purpose and uses state the types of housing joints. The housing joint consists of sinking the one end or edge Stopped housing joint (Fig 3) of one member into a groove or trench in the face of another For improved appearance, this is used in preference to member. It is mainly used in fixing shelves or divisions in through housing. The end of the trench is stopped back book-cases, cabinets, treads of step ladders, treads of from the front edge. The end of the shelf notched to suit so stairs etc., that in the assembled joint the trench is not seen. Types of housing joints Full housing joints (Fig 1) The whole end or edge is fitted into an enough trench and the joint is visible on both sides of edges. (Fig 1) Care case pinned joint (Fig 4) This joint is generally used in car case construction for fixing partitions, where all the member are of solid plywood. The end of partition piece is divided into a number of short tenons which fits into suitable mortises in the top and Dovetailed housing joint (Fig 2) bottom pieces. Tenons may pass through the bottom to be Wherever a stronger joint is required it is used. The end wedged, making the joint stronger. The mortised pieces is of the shelf is dovetailed on one or both sides and fitted into slightly trenched to improve fitting. dovetailed trench. The depth of the trench is about 1/3rd thickness of the plank. (Fig 2b) 34 Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.03 `T’ bevel or bevel square Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the construction of the bevel square state the parts of bevel square state the features of bevel square. The T-bevel is used to test and transfer angles other than right angles. The bevel is called sliding bevel because it has an adjustable sliding blade. The blade may be locked by a wing nut or set screw. The required angle is set from a straight edge and the degrees are measured against a protractor. Uses The sliding bevel is used for laying out dovetails, side rails for chairs, chamfers, bevels and for transfering angles from the drawing to the work piece. THE PARTS OF THE BEVEL SQUARE. (Fig 1 & 2). Handle Handle is made of hard wood, cast iron and aluminum. The top edge is half rounded and there is a slot to fix the bevel square. Blade One edge of the blade is half rounded and their other edge is cut at 45o. There is a longitudinal slot. The handle is fitted with the wing nut in the slot or with a machine screw. Locking nut On loosening the wing nut the blade can be shifted to any This may be a wing nut or a set screw used for loosening angle. And also the blade can be extended for further or tightening the blade. length if necessary. Bridle joints Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state the various types bridle joint state the uses of bridle joint. These joints are sometimes used in place of mortise and tenon joints where a stronger joint than a halving is required. Here instead of tenon an open slot or socket is cut in the end of the rail to fit over a pin produced by trenching both sides of the stile. The pin and sockets are usually 1/3rd the thickness of timber. Common or Tee-bridle Joint (Fig 1) In place of common mortise and tenon joint where one member meets the other some distance away from the end. Some times seen on small tables and stands where a leg meets the middle of rail. Pins can be used to strengthen the joint. It is required to hide the end grain the pin is not cut the whole width of the timber and the socket is shortened. Construction, Construction Material & Real Estate : Mason - Related Theory for Exercise: 1.1.03 35 Corner bridle joint (Fig 2): Some times it is called the Mitre corner bridle joint (Fig 3) open mortise and tenon joint. It is used as a substitute the haunched mortise and tenon at the corners of frames. One or both sides of the socket may be mitered as required. It is used where a stronger joint than the mitred halving joint is required on either plain or moulded timber as on mirror frames etc. Wing compass Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to state use of a wing compass in marking state the construction of wing compass. It consists of a pair of dividers (legs) made of steel. The legs are sharpened to points and at the top they are revetted or screwed. They are fixed at the required radius by means of a set screw. (Fig 1) Uses 1 For setting out arcs of circles. 2 To transfe