Market Milk PDF Handbook

Market Milk Latha Sabikhi Y. Kotilinga Reddy 2016  Market Milk Market Milk Latha Sabikhi Dairy Technology Division NDRI, Karnal Y. Kotilinga Reddy...

Market Milk Latha Sabikhi Y. Kotilinga Reddy 2016  Market Milk Market Milk Latha Sabikhi Dairy Technology Division NDRI, Karnal Y. Kotilinga Reddy Dairy Technology Department SVVU, Tirupati Living in the favourable and unfavourable situation is called "PART OF LIFE", But smiling in all those situations is called "ART OF LIFE". Editor AgriMoon.Com 2  Market Milk MARKET MILK Course Outline 4 (3+1) Module 1: Introduction and history of dairy development in India Lesson 1. Dairying in India - Distinctive features Lesson 2. Dairy development in India - Before and after Operation Flood Module 2: Milk production and consumption Lesson 3. Data - Milk production and consumption Module 3: Clean milk production Lesson 4. Practices related to animal and milking personnel Lesson 5. Milking process and environment Module 4: Procurement of milk Lesson 6. Milk collecting systems and pricing policies Lesson 7. Preservation of raw milk Lesson 8. Lactoperoxidase - Thiocyanates (LP) system Lesson 9. Transportation of raw milk Module 5: Physico-chemical, microbiological and nutritional properties of milk Lesson 10. Physical properties and composition of milk Lesson 11. Macro components of milk - Fat and lactose Lesson 12. Macro components of milk - Protein Lesson 13. Micro components of milk Lesson 14. Microbiology of raw milk Lesson 15. Nutritional properties of milk Module 6: Common dairy operations Lesson 16. Reception of milk Lesson 17. Chilling and storage of milk Lesson 18. Filtration and clarification Lesson 19. Separation of milk - Theory and methods Lesson 20. Separation of milk - Cream separators Lesson 21. Bactofugation Lesson 22. Standardization of milk Lesson 23. Homogenization - Definition and theories Lesson 24. Homogenization - Types and operation of homogenizers Lesson 25. Homogenization - Effect on milk properties Lesson 26. Principles of heat treatment Lesson 27. Kinetic parameters of heat induced changes Lesson 28. Principle and methods of pasteurization Lesson 29. Heat exchangers - Plate and tubular type 3  Market Milk Lesson 30. Working of HTST pasteurizer Lesson 31. Sterilization - Definition, purpose and methods Lesson 32. Ultra-high temperature process Lesson 33. UHT milk - Homogenization, packaging and defects Module 7: Processed milk varieties Lesson 34. Legal standards and variants of market milk Lesson 35. Special milks Module 8: Cleaning and sanitization Lesson 36. Common dairy detergents and their properties Lesson 37. Dairy sanitizers and their properties Lesson 38. Cleaning and sanitization protocols - CIP and SIP Lesson 39. Tests for detergents and sanitizers Module 9: Packaging of milk Lesson 40. Packaging - materials and process Module 10: Quality assurance in milk processing Lesson 41. Quality assessment of raw milk Lesson 42. Detection of preservatives, neutralizers and adulterants Lesson 43. Chemical quality of milk - Fat, SNF, TS and acidity Lesson 44. Microbiological quality of milk Module 11: Indian food regulation in global scenario Lesson 45. Quality and safety regulations 4  Market Milk Module 1. Introduction and history of dairy development in India Lesson 1 DAIRYING IN INDIA - DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 1.1 Introduction Milk is the substance created by nature to feed the mammalian offspring. All species of mammals produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in variou s parts of the world for the production of milk for human use. The ancient Indian scriptures provide ample proof of dairying being an integral part of life in the olden days. Dairying in India is considered an implement for social change. The nation's mil k supply comes from millions of small producers, dispersed throughout the rural areas. These farmers maintain an average herd of one or two milch animals, comprising cows and/or buffalos. The animals' nutritional requirements are largely met by agricultural waste and byproducts. Milk production in India is dominated by small and marginal landholding farmers and by landless labourers who, in aggregate, own about 70 percent of the national milch animal herd. This pattern is in sharp contrast to that in the advanced countries of the world which practice specialized dairy farming. This small scale and scattered production creates a serious problem in marketing of milk. Organized dairying on the pattern of developed countries is conspicuous by its absence in Indi a. Although the major challenge for the dairy sector is to increase milk production, policies must become more market-oriented. 1.2 Milk Production India ranks first in respect of cattle and buffalo, second in goat and third in sheep population in the world. As per 2008 data, India has more than 175 million cattle which are about 13% of the global cattle population (www.fao.org). Of these, nearly 23 million are crossbred, comprising nearly 13% of the total cattle population. The country has nearly 99 mill ion buffalo population, which is about 55% of the world buffalo population. However, in spite of this large cattle wealth and India’s position as the highest producer of milk, productivity per animal is only 987 kg/lactation as compared to the world average of 2038 kg/lactation (www.dahd.nic.in). The typical size of animal holding is only 1 to 5 due to poor economic conditions. Milch animals are reared mainly through the utilization of crop residues in India, thus making milk production subsidiary activity to agriculture. In the advanced dairying countries, milk is produced from comparatively fewer, but high producing animals. In countries such as Denmark and Israel, though the total number of bovine population has steadily declined over the past decade, the total milk production has gone up, thus pointing to increased productivity of animals. The trend of the past two decades indicates that global milk production has grown only by 0.78% as against the growth rate of 4.07% in India. India has the distinction of being the largest milk producer in the world, with 110.04 million tonnes (MT) of milk produced in 2009 (www.fao.org), despite very low productivity per animal. Cow milk (44 MT) accounts for about 40% of the milk produced in India, while buffalo milk (61 MT) makes up about 56% and other milch animals such as goat, sheep and camel account for the remaining 4%. The highest cow milk production was 5  Market Milk registered by USA accounting for a share of 15% in the world, whereas buffalo milk production was the highest in India with a global share of 68%. India is among the world’s largest and fastest growing market for milk and milk products, the market size in value terms being USD 47.6 billion (INR 2000 billion) growing at nearly 7.5% annually. In India, along with Oceania and USA, where milk is produced at competitive prices, prospects for future growth seem bright during the current century. India is able to produce milk at very competitive prices on global basis owing to the use of crop residues for rearing the animals. Owing to this, huge opportunities exist in the export of milk and value added milk products to neighboring countries where domestic production cannot meet demand. As subsidies on agriculture commodities have to be withdrawn as per the directives of the World Trade Organization (WTO), most of the exporting nations of European Union were compelled to readjust their economies by curtailing milk production. 1.3 Dairy Animals Domesticated cattle are usually classified into two major groups namely zebu (Bos indicus- Fig. 1.1) and European (Bos taurus – Fig. 1.2). Most of the cattle indigenous to the tropics belong to the zebu species. Fig. 1.1 Zebu cattle Fig. 1.2 European cattle The term humped cattle is frequently used as a synonym to zebu cattle because the external trait which most clearly separates zebu from European type cattle is the hump over the shoulders. Zebu cattle are well adapted to the tropical environments, mainly owing to a high degree of heat tolerance, partial resistance to ticks and thus to the many tick-borne diseases occurring in tropical countries, low nutritional requirements due to small size, low metabolic rate, and may ensure more efficient digestion at low feeding levels. However, the potential for milk production is poorly developed in most zebu cattle and therefore, the milk yield is low. Zebu animals are late maturing, both physiologically and sexually, and heat symptoms are weaker than in European cattle. The fat and solids-not-fat content of milk is higher in zebu cattle than in most European dairy breeds. Some of the well known indigenous breeds of milch cattle are Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Hariana and Kankarej. For small and marginal farmers and in conditions where feed resources are limited, upgradation of non-descript stock could be done by utilizing superior germplasm of indigenous breeds. Systematic efforts to increase milk production in tropical 6  Market Milk countries by crossbreeding with European dairy breeds dates back to early years of the last century. Exotic breeds namely Jersey, Holstein-Friesen, Brown Swiss and Red Dane were employed for the venture. The milch bovine population in the country as per the 2003 Livestock Census is nearly 116 million, of which buffalos, indigenous and crossbred cows comprise 44, 45 and 11% respectively (www.nddb.org). In India, most of the milk produced (~ 56%) is buffalo milk. In the hot and humid climate of the country, the water buffalo contributes more to milk production than the cow because of its inherent ability to thrive under the adverse climatic conditions. Buffalo population has increased at a faster rate than cattle, confirming the pivotal role the buffalo plays in the agricultural economy of Indian sub-continent. Buffalos are known to be more efficient converters of poor quality roughages and crop residues into a valuable milk commodity. The Murrah (Fig. 1.3) is known to be the best milk yielding breed among buffalos. Fig. 1.3 Murrah buffalo 1.4 Milk Consumption The role and consumption pattern of milk in the traditional diet varies widely in different regions of the world. The tropical countries have not been traditional milk consumers, whereas in Europe and North America, traditionally milk and milk products have been parts of the diet. The total milk consumption (as fluid milk and processed products) per person varies widely from highs in Europe and North America to lows in Asia. However, as the various regions of the world become more integrated through travel and migration, these trends are changing, a factor which needs to be considered by product developers and marketers of milk and milk products in various countries of the world. In tropical countries where high temperatures and lack of refrigeration has led to the inability to store fresh milk, milk has conventionally been preserved through means other than refrigeration. These include immediate consumption of warm milk after milking, boiling milk, or use of fermentation and drying to convert milk to more stable products. Even within regions such as Europe, the custom of milk consumption has varied greatly. ******☺ ****** 7  Market Milk Lesson 2 DAIRY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA – BEFORE AND AFTER OPERATION FLOOD 2.1 Introduction History of dairy development in India can be divided into two distinct phases: pre- and post- Operation Flood. The Defence Department under the British rule established military dairy farms to ensure the supply of milk and butter to the colonial army. The first of these farms was set up in Allahabad in 1913, followed by Bangalore, Ooty and Karnal. These farms were well maintained and used improved milch animals. Some herd improvement practices such as artificial insemination was also followed. However, this did not have much impact on the civilian consumers. With the growth of the population in urban areas, consumers had to depend on milk vendors who kept cattle in these areas and sold their milk, often door-to-door. As a result, several cattle sheds came into existence in different cities, which led to environmental problems. As the main objective of the milk vendors was to maximize profit, they started increasing the lactation period. Consequently, these high- yielding cattle developed sterility problems, which considerably reduced the number of calvings. Once the cattle became unproductive, they were sold to slaughterhouses, thus systematically draining the country of its genetically superior breeds. The onset of the Second World War gave momentum to private dairies with some modernized processing facilities. In the metros of the then Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Delhi, and some large towns, processed milk, table butter and ice-cream were available, though on a limited scale. Polsons, Keventers and the Express Dairy were some of the pioneer urban processing dairies. However, these dairies were more concerned with cornering more milk and profit making than improving the breeds of milch animals. Therefore, despite some modernized processing facilities, dairying remained unorganized. Modernization of the dairy industry became a priority for the government after first Five-Year Plan in 1951 and it was put in place. The goal was to provide hygienic milk to the country's growing urban population. At the outset, ‘milk schemes’ were set up in large cities. The government implemented programmes such as the Integrated Cattle Development Project (ICDP), Key Village Scheme (KVS) and several others to stimulate milk production. However, milk production remained more or less stagnant owing to the absence of a stable and remunerativ e market for milk producers. During the two decades between 1951 and 1970, the annual growth rate in milk production was just about 1% although the state governments tried out different policies to develop dairying. These strategies included establishing d airies run by their own departments, setting up cattle colonies in urban areas and organizing milk schemes. Almost invariably, dairy processing plants were built in cities rather than in the milksheds where milk was produced, leading to establishment of cattle colonies in the then Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. These government projects found organizing rural milk procurement and running milk schemes economically extremely difficult. No attention was paid to create an organized system for procurement of milk, which was left to contractors and middlemen. Milk's perishable nature and relative scarcity gave the milk vendors considerable advantage. The government-run dairy plants extended buffalo milk by reconstituting large quantities of relatively cheap, commercially imported milk powder to bring down the milk price. 8  Market Milk Consequently, the domestic milk production decreased. The government dairies were meeting barely one-third of the urban demand, while the rural milk producers squirmed in the clutches of the traders and the moneylenders. The establishment and prevalence of cattle colonies resulted in a major genetic drain on the rural milch animal population, which would never be replaced. City dairy colonies contributed to environmental degradation, while the rural producers derived no incentive in increasing milk production. 2.2 The Co-operative Movement The strategy for organized dairy development in India was actually conceived in the late 1960s, within a few years after the establishment of National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) in 1965. NDDB was established by an Act of Parliament with the objectives of promoting dairy cooperatives, financing dairy infrastructure through loans and grants and providing technical and managerial support to the dairy cooperative societies. The Operation Flood programme (OFP) was conceived by the NDDB and endorsed by the government. However, in 1969, when the Government of India approved the OFP and its financing through the monetization of World Food Programme-gifted commodities, it was found that the statutes under which NDDB was registered did not provide for handling of government funds. Therefore, in 1970 the government established a public-sector company, the Indian Dairy Corporation (IDC). The IDC was given responsibility for receiving the project's donated commodities, testing their quality, their storage and transfer to user dairies as well as receiving the dairies' payments. Thus the financial and promotional aspects were the responsibility of the IDC while the entire technical support for OFP was provided by NDDB. OFP was set up with the objectives to enhance milk production, increase the rural income and to ensure reasonable price to the farmers for the milk they produce. OFP was implemented in three phases. The first phase (1970-1980) was financed by the sale of 1,26,000 MT of skimmed milk powder (SMP) and 42,000 MT of butter oil gifted by the European Union (then European Economic Community – EEC) through the World Food Programme. The programme involved organizing dairy cooperatives at the village level, creating the physical and institutional infrastructure for milk procurement, processing, marketing and production enhancement services at the union level and establishing dairies in India's major metropolitan cities. The m ain thrust was to set up dairy cooperatives in India's best milksheds, linking them with the four main cities of Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Madras, in which a commanding share of the milk market was to be captured. Thus, eighteen of India's premier milksheds were linked with consumers in India's four major metropolitan cities. In achieving that goal, the first phase of Operation Flood laid the foundation for India's modern dairy industry, an industry that would ultimately meet the country's need for milk and milk products. Operation Flood's Phase II (1981-85) integrated the Indian Dairy Association-assisted dairy development projects being implemented in some Indian states into the overall programme. About US$ 150 million was provided by the World Bank, with the balance of project financing obtained in the form of commodity assistance (2,16,584 MT of SMP, 62,402 MT of butter oil and 16,577 MT of butter) from the EEC. The milksheds increased from 18 to 136 and 290 urban markets expanded the outlets for milk. A self-sustaining system of 43,000 village cooperatives covering 4.25 million milk producers was established by the end of 1985. Domestic milk powder production in the established dairies increased from 22,000 tons in the pre-project year to 140,000 tons by 1989. Phase III (1985-1996) of Operation Flood enabled dairy cooperatives to expand and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market increasing volumes of milk. It was funded by a World Bank credit of about US$ 365 million and Rs. 226.5 crore worth of food aid (75,000 MT of SMP and 25,000 MT of butter oil/butter) from the EEC. Veterinary first-aid health care services, 9  Market Milk feed and artificial insemination services for cooperative members were extended, along with intensified member education. More emphasis was given to research and development in animal health and animal nutrition. To avoid any duplication in their activities or overlap of functions, IDC and NDDB were eventually merged into a newly constituted NDDB by an Act of Parliament passed in October, 1987. The Act designated the NDDB as an institution of national importance and accorded it the same autonomy of operation that it had been bestowed with earlier. India currently has 133349 village dairy cooperatives federated into 177 milk unions and 15 federations that procured on an average 25.1 million litres of milk every day. These village dairy cooperatives have nearly 13.9 million farmers as members (www.nddb.org, 2008-09 figures). These cooperatives form part of the National Milk Grid which today links the milk producers in villages throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities bridging the gap between the seasonal and regional variation in the availability of milk while at the same time ensuring a remunerative returns to the producers and quality milk and milk products at a reasonable price to the consumers. The future thrust areas of NDDB include strengthening the cooperative business, enhancing productivity, improving quality and building a National Information Network. ******☺ ****** 10  Market Milk Module 2: Milk production and consumption Lesson 3 DATA – MILK PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION Table 3.1. Milk production in selected countries (million tonnes) Region/ 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 Country World 570.73 589.75 614.77 645.33 671.31 696.55 Australia 10.49 10.87 10.08 10.09 10.35 9.39 China 11.24 14.52 21.87 32.02 37.11 40.55 Denmark 4.66 4.55 4.68 4.58 4.60 4.81 France 25.63 25.67 25.42 25.71 24.55 24.22 Germany 28.36 28.21 28.56 28.49 27.94 28.69 India 78.24 83.42 86.66 95.62 102.92 110.04 Ireland 5.12 5.38 5.30 5.38 5.20 5.37 N. Zealand 10.88 13.12 14.35 14.64 15.84 15.22 Netherlands 11.17 10.97 11.08 10.85 10.75 11.47 UK 15.01 14.71 15.01 14.47 14.45 13.24 USA 73.80 74.99 77.29 80.25 84.19 85.86 Source: http://faostat.fao.org Table 3.2. Continents – Species-wise milk production - 2009 (million tonnes) Region/ Continent Cow Buffalo Goat World 580.48 90.33 15.13 Africa 27.65 (4.76) 2.64 (2.92) 3.21 (21.22) America - North 94.07 (16.21) - - America - Central 14.18 (2.44) 0.17 America - South 59.18 (10.20) - 0.18 (1.12) Asia 150.19 (25.87) 87.48 (96.85) 8.91 (58.89) Europe 208.95 (36.00) 0.22 (0.24) 2.47 (16.33) Oceania 24.67 (4.25) - 0.04 (0.26) Figures in parentheses indicate the global share in per cent Table 3.3. State-wise annual milk production (‘000 tonnes) 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008-09 Region/ State 03 04 05 06 07 08 All India 86159 88082 92484 97066 100869 104840 108463 South A&N Islands 26 25 24 20 23 24 26 Andhra 6584 6959 7257 7624 7939 8925 9570 Pradesh Karnataka 4539 3857 3917 4022 4124 4244 4538 11  Market Milk Kerala 2419 2111 2025 2063 2119 2253 2541 Lakshadweep 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 Pondicherry 37 40 41 43 45 46 46 Tamil Nadu 4622 4752 4784 5474 5560 5586 5673 West/ Central D&N Haveli 8 8 4 5 5 5 4 Daman & 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Diu Goa 46 48 57 56 57 58 59 Gujarat 6089 6421 6745 6960 7533 7911 8386 Madhya 5343 5388 5506 6283 6375 6572 6855 Pradesh Maharashtra 6238 6379 6567 6769 6978 7210 7455 North Chandigarh 43 44 43 46 46 47 47 Delhi 296 299 303 310 289 282 285 Haryana 5124 5221 5222 5299 5367 5442 5745 Himachal 773 786 870 869 872 874 884 Pradesh J&K 1389 1414 1422 1400 1400 1498 1498 Punjab 8173 8391 8554 8909 9168 9282 9387 Rajasthan 7789 8054 8310 8713 9375 9436 9491 Uttar Pradesh 15288 15943 16512 17356 18095 18861 19537 Uttarakhand 1079 1188 1195 1206 1213 1221 1230 East Bihar 2869 3180 4743 5060 5450 5783 5934 Chhattisgarh 804 812 831 839 849 866 908 Jharkhand 952 954 1330 1335 1401 1442 1466 Orissa 941 997 1283 1342 1431 1625 1672 West Bengal 3600 3686 3790 3891 3982 4087 4176 North-east Arunachal 46 46 48 48 49 50 24 Pradesh Assam 705 727 739 747 751 752 753 Manipur 69 71 75 77 77 78 78 Meghalaya 68 69 71 73 75 77 77 Mizoram 15 15 16 15 16 17 17 Nagaland 58 63 69 74 67 45 53 Sikkim 45 48 46 48 49 49 49 Tripura 79 84 86 87 89 91 96 12  Market Milk Table 3.4. Projections of milk production Region/ Production, 2007 Growth rate Future projections Country (million tonnes) (%) (million tonnes) 2010 2015 2020 World 671.31 2.1 714.50 792.74 879.54 India 102.92 3.2 113.12 132.42 155.00 USA 84.19 1.9 89.08 97.87 107.53 China 37.11 3.1 40.67 47.38 55.19 Germany 27.94 -0.1 27.86 27.72 27.58 France 24.55 -0.2 24.40 24.16 23.92 N. Zealand 15.84 4.9 18.28 23.23 29.50 UK 14.45 -0.02 14.44 14.43 14.41 Netherlands 10.75 0.2 10.82 10.92 11.03 Australia 10.35 0.5 10.51 10.77 11.04 Pakistan 33.23 6.0 39.58 52.96 70.88 Table 3.5. Farmgate price (Rs./kg) of milk in selected countries (2008) Country CM BM Australia 18.39 - Bulgaria 20.34 29.46 Canada 29.80 - China 40.71 - Denmark 25.15 - Egypt 23.02 27.55 France 23.83 - Germany 22.19 - India 13.93 18.31 Israel 27.04 - Italy 24.94 35.50* Netherlands 24.22 - New Zealand 20.24 - Pakistan 13.32 12.53 Poland 19.32 - Switzerland 31.92 - UK 21.08 - USA 20.49 - CM – cow milk, BM - buffalo milk, * - 2007 prices Table 3.6. Per capita consumption of liquid milk (g/day) Region/ country 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 World 123.29 123.29 126.03 130.13 137.29 Africa 68.49 73.97 73.97 72.80 77.53 America - North 265.75 295.89 268.49 293.91 326.84 America - Central 209.13 218.60 228.05 229.71 229.93 America - South 254.80 243.84 243.84 262.02 273.10 Asia 73.97 73.97 82.19 87.97 96.49 13  Market Milk Europe 268.49 252.06 249.32 260.98 254.62 Oceania 249.32 208.22 197.26 224.20 272.47 Australia 350.69 295.89 279.45 251.01 318.72 China 19.18 24.66 38.36 59.40 73.46 India 117.81 109.59 112.33 105.18 110.95 New Zealand 145.21 136.99 134.25 171.71 148.54 Pakistan 238.36 235.62 235.62 229.76 255.22 UK 328.77 339.73 339.73 327.48 326.56 USA 317.81 378.08 323.29 315.22 351.42 Table 3.7. Per capita consumption of selected milk products (kg) Liquid Milk Drinks Cheeses (kg) Butter (kg) Country (year) (L) (2007) (2007) Argentina 65.8 (2005) 8.04 1.07 Australia 106.3 (2005) 10.05 3.86 Austria 80.2 (2006) 22.32 5.34 Canada 94.7 (2005) 12.73 2.51 China 8.8 (2005) 0.23 0.11 EU -25 countries 92.6 (2006) 16.74 3.95 Finland 183.9 (2006) 16.09 3.80 France 92.2 (2006) 24.48 8.26 Germany 92.3 (2006) 20.72 6.35 Greece 69.0 (2006) 30.44 1.10 India 67.0 (2003) N/A 2.65* Ireland 129.8 (2006) 10.41 2.60 Italy 57.3 (2006) 21.83 2.77 Mexico 40.7 (2006) 2.16 0.71 Netherlands 122.9 (2006) 19.44 3.30 New Zealand 90.0 (2005) 4.92 9.33 Norway 116.7 (2006) 15.74 2.53 Spain 119.1 (2005) 9.07 0.96 Sweden 145.5 (2006) 17.68 2.69 Switzerland 112.5 (2006) 19.24 5.97 UK 111.2 (2005) 11.15 3.11 United States 83.9 (2006) 14.86 2.02 * Includes ghee. Table 3.8. World - Per capita availability of milk (g/day) Country 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009* World 258.88 260.71 265.16 285.72 278.93 279.44 Australia 1526.25 1543.51 1397.13 1366.32 1366.59 1208.19 China 24.44 31.15 46.39 67.16 76.92 82.15 Denmark 2399.77 2327.51 2377.01 2309.86 2304.77 2409.16 France 1154.47 1143.94 1120.19 1119.64 1056.19 1064.37 Germany 946.68 939.32 949.61 946.91 928.97 956.62 India 217.29 223.64 224.51 239.56 249.56 251.65 14  Market Milk Ireland 3740.50 3843.45 3700.42 3670.55 3467.09 3258.54 N.Zealand 7877.94 9365.91 9927.34 9907.95 10501.86 9774.64 Netherlands 1936.64 1876.38 1871.15 1811.74 1777.37 1893.96 UK 693.56 674.80 684.31 655.90 651.39 587.00 USA 723.94 721.10 730.22 743.83 765.59 747.58 * On the basis of population projections made in 2008 Table 3.9. India - Per capita availability of milk (g/day) Region/ State 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 All India 230 231 233 241 246 South A&N Islands 195 183 165 135 155 Andhra Pradesh 231 238 250 260 269 Karnataka 229 190 194 197 200 Kerala 203 173 169 171 172 Lakshadweep 87 43 45 64 76 Pondicherry 101 107 108 108 117 Tamil Nadu 198 198 204 231 232 West/ Central D&N Haveli 97 95 45 53 54 Daman & Diu 17 16 10 11 13 Goa 91 93 110 105 100 Gujarat 321 330 344 349 374 Madhya Pradesh 236 233 233 262 259 Maharashtra 172 172 176 178 182 North Chandigarh 127 127 115 116 124 Delhi 57 56 54 54 48 Haryana 647 643 631 628 633 Himachal 339 337 378 373 370 Pradesh J&K 365 363 364 353 325 Punjab 895 898 917 943 961 Rajasthan 368 371 376 387 408 Uttar Pradesh 245 250 254 262 267 Uttaranchal 339 365 364 361 358 East Bihar 92 100 147 154 163 Chhattisgarh 103 102 103 103 101 Jharkhand 94 92 127 126 131 Orissa 68 71 92 95 100 West Bengal 120 120 124 126 126 North-east Arunachal 112 109 114 113 114 Pradesh Assam 71 71 72 72 70 Manipur 85 85 90 92 82 Meghalaya 78 78 81 82 82 15  Market Milk Mizoram 45 44 46 43 45 Nagaland 78 83 90 96 86 Sikkim 222 231 221 232 230 Tripura 66 68 70 70 71 Table 3.10. Average milk yield of species of cows and buffaloes in India Breed Origin Milk yield (kg/year) Village Commercial farms Indian Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana, U.P, Delhi, Bihar, M.P 1350 2100 cattle(Bos indicus) Gir Gir forest areas of South Kathiawar 900 1600 Tharparker Jodhpur, Kutch, Jaisalmer 1660 2500 Red Sindhi Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka, Tamil 1100 1900 Nadu, Kerala, Orissa Kankrej Gujarat 1300 3600 Ongole Nellore, Krishna, Godavari, Guntur 1500 (AP) Hariana Karnal, Hisar, Gurgaon (Haryana), 1140 - 4500 Delhi, western M.P Foreign cattle Holstein Holland 7200-9000 (Bos taurus) Friesian Jersey Island of Jersey (Great Britain) 5000-8000 Brown Switzerland 5250 Swiss Ayrshire Scotland 4840 Crossbred cattle Karan NDRI, Karnal 3700 (8338)* Fries Karan NDRI, Karnal 3355 (7096)* Swiss Sunandini Kerala 2900 Frieswal PDC, Meerut 2970 Murrah Haryana, Delhi Punjab 1560 Jaffarabadi Kathiawar (Gujarat) 1800-2700 Surti Gujarat 1700-2500 Nagpuri Nagpur, Wardha, 1030-1500 Akola, Amravathi,Yeotmal (Maharastra) Buffalo * Best yield at NDRI (Karnal) in parentheses Source: ICAR (1978); Banerjee (1999); Annual Reports, NDRI (Karnal); www.indg.in - India Development Gateway (Nov, 2008 data) ******☺ ****** 16  Market Milk Module 3. Clean milk production Lesson 4 PRACTICES RELATED TO ANIMAL AND MILKING PERSONNEL 4.1 Introduction Milk is the most nutritious and complete food for new born infants and adult human beings. It is, therefore, a perfect growth medium for innumerable microorganisms including pathogens. Some common milk-borne infections and the pathogens causing them are listed in Table 4.1. Milk is also a potential source for chemical contaminants such as antibiotics and pesticides. The term ‘clean milk’ refers to raw milk from healthy animals, that has been produced and handled under hygienic conditions, that contains only a small number of harmless bacteria, is fre e from hazardous chemical residues and that possesses a good keeping quality without being heat- treated. As the raw milk quality prevailing in India is not good, there is much scope for the improvement in the quality of milk produced by making quality strategies for the post-production handling of milk. The two basic principles that ensure safe handling of raw milk are 1) avoiding or minimizing contamination at various stages of handling raw milk and 2) reducing the growth and activity of microorganisms in raw milk. Knowledge of the possible unhygienic practices that lead to the gross contamination of milk will be useful in realizing the seriousness of the situation and in recommending strategies to improve it. Table 4.2 enlists the possible sources and extent of contamination that can occur in milk. The possible undesirable practices that are prevalent may broadly be classified into four categories:  Practices related to the animal: unhealthy animal, unclean body and udder of the animal  Practices related to the milking personnel: unhealthy milker, unclean hands and clothes of the milker, unhygienic personal habits of the milker  Practices related to the milking process: incomplete milking, wrong milking procedure, unclean vessels for milk collection  Practices related to the environment: poor housing and feeding of the animal, unhygienic surroundings Some of the common practices to ensure clean milk production are discussed below in detail. 4.2 Practices Related to the Animal 4.2.1 Health of the animal  The animals should be examined periodically for udder and other infections.  Infected animals should be treated by a qualified veterinarian.  Animals suffering from infectious diseases should be isolated. Sanitary precautions to prevent and control the diseases should be adopted.  Milk of the infected animal should never be pooled with the bulk milk until the animal recovers from the illness fully. 17  Market Milk Table 4.1 Common milk-borne infections No. Infection Causative pathogen Disease/ disorder Possible source of entry 1 Food infection Salmonella typhii and Typhoid, salmonellosis Dung related species (food poisoning) Shigella dysenteriae Shigellosis (dysentery) Faecal contamination Streptococcus sp. Septic sore throat, Faecal contamination (enterococci) scarlet fever, food poisoning 2 Food Staph. aureus Food poisoning Human beings intoxication: Cl. botulinum Botulism (food Soil, water, Bacterial poisoning) inadequate processing E. coli Summer diarrhoea Faecal contamination V. cholerae Cholera Water Fungal Aspergilus flavus Aflatoxicosis Poor storage & Other toxigenic mold Mycotoxicosis handling spp. 3 Toxic infection Bacillus cereus Food poisoning Soil, water, inadequate processing Cl. perfringens Gas gangrene Soil, water, inadequate processing 4 Other milk- Aeromonas spp. Food poisoning Water borne Proteus spp. Human intestinal disorders tract, soil, water (uncertain Klebsiella spp. Enteric sources pathogenesis) Pseudomonas spp. Soil, water of cold regions Citrobacter spp. Soil, water, sewage 5 Some other Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis Soil, human beings important Yersinia enterocolitica Diarrhoeal disease Water pathogens Campylobacter jejuni Dung Vibrio parahaemolyticus Water 6 Other milk- Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis Humans borne diseases: Brucella abortus - Bacterial 18  Market Milk Table 4.2. Bacterial contamination of milk as influenced by different sources ******☺ ****** 19  Market Milk Lesson 5 MILKING PROCESS AND ENVIRONMENT 5.1 Practices Related to the Milking Process 5.1.1 Udder washing  All udder washing and cleaning should be done gently so as not to damage the orifices and clefts between the quarters of the udder.  For all washing, two buckets (one with plain water and a second, which carries the disinfecting solution) with two separate cloths for both the purposes are required. A third bucket with a mild detergent solution and a third cloth is recommended for wiping the teats after milking.  The first wash with tepid water should remove all dirt particles from the udder. A gentle detergent solution may be employed to remove persistent dirt. If the dirt is wiped off with a wet cloth, the cloth should be wrung outside the bucket.  During severe winters, lukewarm water is recommended for udder washing to avoid chills. This also conditions the animal to let down the milk. The temperature of the wash water should be below 55°C.  Addition of hypochlorite solution (500 ppm) helps to disinfect the udder. Solutions of quaternary ammonium compounds (200 to 400 ppm) are better substitutes due to their less harmful effect on tissues. Under Indian conditions, the easily available Dettol or Savlon may be diluted as per the manufacturers’ instructions and used to disinfect the udder and teats.  After washing, these organs should be dried before milking. A different wash cloth as well as drying cloth is recommended for each cow. The towel used should also be washed after each milking and disinfected by boiling from time to time.  Disposable paper towels may be used instead of cloth. However, under the Indian conditions, these may be impractical.  The udder and teats should be wiped with clean cloth dipped in detergent solution after milking. 5.1.2 Hygienic practices during milking  The milking should be complete, with no milk left in the udder after milking.  The first few ml of milk should be discarded, as this contains a large number of microorganisms.  This forestripping should be collected in a cup or a utensil and not thrown on the floor, so that flies and other insects may not be attracted towards it.  Milking should be done with full hands, quickly and completely, followed by stripping, if so required. Milking operation should be complete in 7-8 minutes. In farms with more than 8 high-yielding cows, it is preferable to use a milking machine. If the herd exceeds 100, a separate milking parlour will ensure better hygiene.  Unhygienic practices such as dipping the fingers in milk and then wetting the teats to soften them should not be permitted.  Milking with the full hands and not with the knuckles is preferred as the latter leads to more chances of teat injury. 20  Market Milk  Sick cows should be milked at the end to prevent infection.  The animals should be dried off 60-70 days before calving. 5.1.3 Hygiene of milking utensils  All milking utensils should be of uniform size.  They should have small mouths to avoid external contamination.  They should be made of a non-rusting and non-absorbent material such as aluminium or galvanized iron. Stainless steel would be ideal, but for the cost considerations. The use of vessels such as empty dalda tins, pesticide/insecticide containers, teapots etc. should be avoided.  The utensils should be free from dents, cracks and crevices.  The utensils should be scrubbed and cleaned before and after each milking.  The detergents and chemicals used should be non-injurious to health, and non-abrasive to hands. At farm level, use of washing soda coupled with exposure to sunlight or rinsing with scalding water or use of detergents-cum-disinfectants such as iodophors is recommended.  The cleaned vessels should be placed inverted for complete drainage of water after milking, so as to avoid contamination from bacteria of the air, insects, rodents, mosquitoes, reptiles etc.  In villages where milk collection is carried out by co-operative societies, the use of community milking byres/parlours with facility to clean and disinfect udders/teats as well as milking equipments under the supervision of the society officials is recommended.  Milk should immediately be transferred from the barn to an appropriate place. 5.2 Practices Related to the Environment 5.2.1 Hygiene of milking environment The places, where housing, feeding and milking of the animals are done, need special care in order to minimize contamination of the milk. In the animal house system, the animals are housed during winter and milked in the same building. This system has been practiced in temperate countries for many years, the extent of its adoption varying in different countries according to climatic conditions. The animal house is a specialized building, which should be carefully designed and constructed so as to provide comfortable and healthy housing facility for the cows and at the same time to enable them to be milked in clean conditions. The animal house should be situated at an appropriate site. Water should be available in plenty and drainage facilities must be there. There should be ample ventilation in the shed with enough space to house all the animals. Proper drainage system is an essential feature of every animal house to facilitate collection and disposal of liquid wastes so as to prevent contamination of milk. There should be isolation boxes or separate accommodation for sick animals and animals about to calve. 5.3 Feeds and Milk Contamination Clean milk production must also ensure that feedstuffs offered to animals are not a potential source of contamination. Proper nutrition can decrease new mammary infection rates by improving the animal’s immunity. The usefulness of antibiotics and drugs against mastitis and other diseases in animals have rendered them almost indispensable in veterinary medicine. The administration of these substances, however, results in the secretion of their residues into milk. The consumption of such contaminated milk has physiological and technological implications. Once antibiotics and drugs find their way into milk, it is difficult to get rid of them. Heat 21  Market Milk treatment is not usually effective. Processes such as ultrafiltration (UF) can help considerably, to reduce the antibiotic load of milk. Use of specific enzymes (such as penicillinase to inactivate penicillin) may be useful in salvaging all components of the contaminated milk, albeit, at some extra cost. However, under the Indian scenario, the best and more economical method would be to follow stringent preventive measures listed below.  Antibiotic administration to infected animals should only be done under veterinary supervision.  Clinical cases should be treated as soon as they occur.  Cases of sub-clinical mastitis should be treated at herd level at the beginning of the dry period.  Each preparation of antibiotic used for the treatment of milch animals should be tested for determining the maximum interval before all traces are secreted.  The appropriate withholding time, usually 72 h should be observed.  Regular monitoring of the raw milk supplies by means of suitable test method and penalties for the delivery of contaminated milk is essential. (Unfortunately, there are not enough inexpensive farm level tests that may be used to detect extremely low levels of residues that sophisticated tests are capable of detecting). The use of pesticides to control any pest, including unwanted species of plants or a nimals during the production, storage, transport, distribution and processing of food, agricultural commodities and animal feeds leads to the retention of these products or their derivatives in the product. Such residues pose serious threat to public health by entering into the milk when these materials containing pesticides are used as cattle feed. Organochloropesticides (OCP) including DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane), BHC (benzene hexachloride), chlordane, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endosulphan are fat soluble, persistent and not readily excreted by the animals except into milk. Being insoluble in aqueous media, they are unavailable for microbial degradation or detoxification. They remain stored in the animal body fat for long periods in an unchanged form. These pesticides are metabolized at the time of lactation or stress and transported into the milk. The toxicological effects of consuming food products containing pesticide residues include cellular and genetic damage to animals and human beings, blindness, tumerogenic effects, damage of liver function, premature onset of labour, intra-uterine growth retardation and infant mortality. ******☺ ****** 22  Market Milk Module 4. Procurement of milk Lesson 6 MILK COLLECTION SYSTEM AND PRICING POLICIES 6.1 Introduction In most of the developed countries, production of milk is confined to rural areas, while demand is mostly urban in nature. Hence, the milk has to be collected and transported from production points to processing including chilling centers and distributions points in cities. In rural India, milk production is largely a subsidiary activity to the agriculture in contrast to organized dairying in Western countries. Small farmers and landless labourers usually maintain 1- 3 milch animals. As a result, small quantities of milk are produced, in a scattered manner all over the country. This situation makes the task of milk collection complex. With the growth of the organized dairy industry in India, a trend towards establishing modern farms has gained momentum for milk production with a herd of 100-300 cows/buffalo in line with the practice adopted in advanced countries. These farms have the facilities of machine milking and bulk milk cooling. 6.2 Milkshed It is the geographical area from which a city dairy receives its fluid milk supply. The allocation of definite milk sheds to individual dairies for the purpose of developing the same is now being considered in India. 6.3 Rural Milk Collection 6.3.1 Undertaking extensive surveys in the milkshed area to establish a dairy plant Availability of milk at various collection points is ascertained based on  the number of animals  future potential of milk availability, and  the presence of the competitors 6.3.2 Route planning  Taking into account milk availability,  Road access to collection points and their distance from the site of the dairy plants. 6.3.3 Planning the location of the primary collection and chilling centers 6.4 Type of Systems In India, four systems of milk procurement (viz., Direct, Contractor, Agent and Co-operative systems) are popular. The organized sector with 575 processing plants and milk product factories in the Co-operative, Public and Private sectors has not captured major share in the milk trade which is still dominated by the traditional sector. It has been estimated that about 67% of total milk production is marketed, out of which 51% is the share of traditional channels and remaining 16% is through the organized sector. The low capital demands of traditional systems make it hard to replace. The organized dairies collect milk through one or combination of the following systems: 23  Market Milk 6.4.1 Direct system In this system, organized processor (Public, Co-operative or Private) collects milk directly from the producers by establishing village procurement centres. 6.4.2 Contractor system The processors purchases milk from the contractor according to the terms of contract such as quality, quantity, price, etc. 6.4.3 Agent system The processor appoints agents to procure milk in particular area. Payment for the milk is made directly to the producers while the agent gets the commission. 6.4.4 Co-operative system At the village level, the farmers form a co-operative society, which establishes the milk collection centres’. The society collects milk twice a day and delivers it to the milk collection centres where the milk is weighed, tested and the price paid to farmers. The payment is based on fat content or fat + SNF content in the milk. The village society supplies/sells milk to its own District co- operative dairy plant. It transports milk in cans by trucks or through insulated road milk tankers, preferably via a chilling centre. Besides milk collection, the society also provides the technical input services such as the A.I, veterinary aid; concentrated cattle feed and fodder seeds. They also give counselling to the society members to enhance milk production. 6.5 Chilling Centres/Bulk Milk Cooling Centres If the dairy plant is far away from the collection centre, then the collected milk is first brought to a centralized chilling centre/ bulk milk cooling unit. Here, milk is cooled to 4°C and stored in insulated storage tanks of 5000-20,000 L capacity. Subsequently, the chilled milk is transported in insulated Road milk tanker to the dairy plant. The transportation of milk from the chilling centre to the dairy plant usually takes place once a day. 6.6 Efficiency of Systems Each system has its own merits and demerits. The efficiency of any system can be me asured through analysis of various indicators like:  Regularity in milk collection  Efficiency of milk collection in lean months to the milk collected in flush months  Quality of milk procured  Cost of milk procurement 6.7 Problems of Milk Procurement In order to make plants financially viable and sustainable, the procurement system has to be such that the plant runs efficiently. The principal problems in milk procurement which have a direct bearing on capacity utilization and operational efficiency are well recognized. The major problems listed below demand managerial skills to ensure adequate milk supplies to dairy plants, throughout the year:  Perishable nature of commodity, improper cleaning of milking vessels, hind quarters of animals, udder of the animal and the barn.  Commitment for lifting small surpluses of milk from thousands of farmers.  Wide fluctuations in milk output based on seasons. 24  Market Milk  Procurement of milk from farmers – members and non-members of the co-operative societies, problem of payment of price and sharing of inputs.  Lack of infrastructural facilities like cooling at village level, unreliable electricity supply, non-availability of spare parts of machinery. Due to these about 2-5% of milk received is C.O.B. positive especially in summer.  Poorly developed roads and transportation systems cause undue delay in milk procurement  Cost of chilling and transportation is high.  Procurement problems are more specific to hilly regions, drought prone areas, tribal areas, forest, etc.  Quality of raw milk; chemical and microbiological hazards; cleaning of milking utensils and sanitation of milking areas.  Problem of adulterants, neutralizers, preservatives, pesticides, antibiotics and other additives in raw milk.  Unhealthy competition among vendors, contractors, co-operative milk unions and other agencies engaged in milk procurement; administrative demarcation of zones under MMPO for each plant is of no practical help. 6.8 Pricing Policy for Raw Milk The price of raw milk determines the level of profit, so it plays a crucial role in encouraging milk producers’ to produce more milk per animal and per household. Productivity, composition and marketable surplus of milk vary from animal to animal, season to season and place to place. A good pricing policy for raw milk collection has to take care of three variations as given under. 6.8.1 Seasonal variation This is due to seasonality in calving, availability of green fodders and climatic stress. From the pricing point of view, there are four seasons:  Flush - November to February  Transitory to lean - March and April  Lean – May to August  Transitory to Flush - September and October. 6.8.2 Compositional variation Fat and SNF are two major constituents of milk which are considered for price fixation. The '2-axis pricing policy’ gives importance to both fat and SNF; the per Kg (rate) price of fat and SNF are fixed in that ratio at which these occur naturally i.e. around 2/3 of fat per kg price for each kilogram of SNF. This type of pricing discourages adulteration. Basic price is fixed for basic composition and for each 0.1 additional value, bonus is added and for shortfall deductions are made. 6.8.3 Spatial variation Price of agricultural commodities varies from region to region. Milk producers near cities get more price than those located far off. Procurement cost of milk can be minimized by getting more milk from nearby areas or obtaining milk from existing milk shed areas. 6.9 Rational milk pricing policy  A guaranteed price and market to the producers’ throughout the year  A regular supply of wholesome milk at a reasonable price to the consumers 25  Market Milk  An attractive margin of profit to the milk processors and product manufacturers 6.10 Fixing the price from producer’s viewpoint The price should be related to the cost of milk production. The system must ensure a fair margin of profit to the producers. Due consideration has to be taken about seasonal variations in production (supply) and demand, consumer’s price index based on market trends. 6.11 Fixing the price from milk processor’s viewpoint Price fixation should consider the following:  The stage of operation of the plant  Plant capacity utilization  The market objective of the plant  Consideration of the size of the population that is to be covered by the milk scheme  Distribution of people in different occupational and income groups that are to be served  Total cost of transportation, processing/manufacturing and distribution 6.12 Pricing Systems Various pricing systems functioning in the country for milk procurement are given below: 6.12.1 Pricing on fat content A very large section of dairy industry is buying the milk on fat basis, disregarding the SNF content of milk. This is practiced by most private dairies. The advantage involves discouraging adulteration with water or separated milk or, mixing of cow milk with buffalo milk. A disadvantage of this system is that it discourages production of cow milk. The price paid per kg of fat was Rs. 425/- in 2011. 6.12.2 Pricing on volume or weight This method is also known as flat rate. It saves time and is simple to calculate but encourages adulteration i.e. watering or skimming. It is popular in the unorganized sector. 6.12.3 Pricing on total milk solids The traditional milk traders generally price the milk on the basis of total milk solids. They consider the yield of Khoa to be produced from the milk to be purchased. This system encourages partial skimming or adulteration with cheaper non-milk solids. 6.12.4 Pricing on species of milch animal In this system, consideration is given to the species of animal from which the milk is obtained i.e. cow or buffalo. Normally buffalo milk fetches more price than cow milk. This system encourages the adulteration of buffalo milk with water or cow milk. 6.12.5 Pricing as per cost of milk production The price should be related to the cost of milk production and ensure a fair margin of profit to the producer. It should take into account the seasonal variation in production and demand. 26  Market Milk 6.12.6 Pricing according to the use of milk This practice is followed mainly for milk products. Milk procurement for a specialized dairy product such as cheese requires selection of raw milk by avoiding mastitis, colostrum, late lactation, and antibiotic-free milks. The milk should be free from detergents, sanitizers, pesticides, insecticides, aflatoxins, mycotoxins, heavy metals and even off-flavours. 6.12.7 Two-axis pricing of milk Liquid milk plants have a differential pricing system for flush and lean months based on the fat and SNF content of milk, with provision for the payment of a premium for a higher fat and SNF content than the specified standard. According to this pricing policy, the price of milk is calculated by fixing a predetermined rate for fat and SNF. This system discourages adulteration and provides a common pricing approach to both cow and buffalo milk. The requirement by Food Safety and Standards Rules (FSSR) - 2011 (erstwhile PFA) for cow milk is 3.0% - 4.0% fat and 8.5%-9.0% SNF while those for buffalo milk 5.0%-6.0% fat and minimum 9.0% SNF throughout country. This is done with a view to encourage the milk production through high-yielding indigenous and cross breeds and to give adequate incentive for production of cow milk. In this context, National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has suggested the ‘two-axes milk pricing’ policy. 6.13 Two Axes Formula India has been producing large quantities of buffalo milk when compared with any other country. This milk being rich in fat content always attracted good price in comparison to cow milk. The fat portion being visible (giving thickness), separable (yielding cream) and measurable (in percentage) made it easier to decide milk price. 6.13.1 Kilo fat system A system based on ‘kilo fat’ became a practice for purchase of buffalo milk. Under this system, an amount in rupees per kg of fat means an amount payable on that quantum of milk which would yield one kg of fat. For example, when the rate per kg fat is Rs. 425, it means that the said amount will be paid for 16.66 L of buffalo milk with 6% fat (minimum standard): 1 kilo (1000gm) fat ÷ 60 gm/L (6%) = 16.66 L On this basis, the price per L works out to: Rs 425 ÷ 16.66 = Rs 25.51/ L If cow milk with 3.5% fat (min standard) were to be purchased under kg fat system, it would fetch Rs 7.70 per L as shown below: 1000 gm ÷ 35 gm/L (3.5%) = 28.57 L Rs 425 ÷ 28.57 = Rs. 14.87/L This works out to 58% of the rate paid for buffalo milk, an injustice to cow milk producer. 6.13.2 Double axes pricing With a view to pay for buffalo milk and cow milk on the rationale of thei r two components, viz. fat and SNF, a system was devised called as Double–axis milk pricing. The purchase rate for fat and SNF are determined based on previous experience or ruling market prices/ consumer 27  Market Milk appreciation for buffalo milk fat (white ghee) vis-à-vis cow milk fat (yellow ghee) and for buffalo milk SNF vis-à-vis cow milk SNF (i.e. SMP). Accordingly, the difference between prices paid for buffalo milk and cow milk is reduced. Suppose the rate of Rs. 425 per kg fat (which can neither be purchased nor it is the selling rate for ghee normally) is translated into Rs. 190 per kg fat and Rs. 158 per kg SNF, then the purchase price for buffalo milk and cow milk is determined as shown below: Table 6.1 Purchase price for buffalo milk and cow milk *Calculated in grams per L of milk × price per grams of component. In this way, the cow milk is paid to the extent of 78% of the rate for buffalo milk. This also matches with 80% TS in cow milk compared to buffalo milk. Note:  A ready reckoner can be prepared depending on actual rates decided from season to season. For every 0.1 % increase in fat and SNF, the value per L can be worked out for buffalo/cow milk.  In above calculation, volume to weight conversion has not been considered. For calculation of kg fat/kg SNF, the milk volume is to be multiplied by specific gravity and the weight thus arrived is multiplied by fat or SNF % and then divided by 100. However, under the Anand Pattern, farmers are paid on volume and the DCS is paid on weight basis. Hence, the above calculations holds good and serves as a guideline to pay the farmers.  Incentives for quality milk production are sometimes given in form of premium price offered based on microbiological tests such as MBR and Resazurin Reduction. 6.14 Milk Collection Centre The information collected in the survey form has to be analyzed to understand the pattern of dairying in that village for establishing the milk collection centre. These include:  The breeds of cows and buffaloes  The number of animals in milk and dry  The level of animal husbandry practices  Lactation period  Availability of green and dry fodder  Artificial insemination 6.15 Daily Routine in Milk Collection Centre  Organoleptic testing of milk wherein stale, sour, adulterated milk shall be rejected.  The timing of milk collection shall have to be adhered to 28  Market Milk  Milk procurement should be in both the shifts (morning and evening). Unless cooler or bulk cooler is used at the Milk collection centre (MCC), milk should be transported to the dairy in each shift.  The farmers should be trained to carry milk in clean vessels, and the milk cans at the MCC should be cleaned adequately.  The milk samples should be tested for fat content and SNF. A trained person should be assigned such task and should be supervised.  The route vehicle should reach the dairy dock at an interval of every 20 min. All the vehicles should report in such a fashion that the milk reception is over within the stipulated time. 6.16 Raw Milk Reception Dock  The milk cans are loaded on conveyor in a specific sequence and each can is inspected for abnormal colour, taste, smell, etc.  A sample is immediately checked for Clot-on-Boiling (COB) test and the milk is received MCC-wise and samples are drawn for further testing in the laboratory. These samples are checked for acidity, MBRT, and for adulterants like sugar, starch, urea, soda, water, preservatives, etc.  The results of milk weight, fat and SNF percentage are communicated to the MCCs through the transport vehicles on a ‘truck sheet’. It brings information fil led in by the MCCs regarding the vehicle arrival and departure time, number of milk cans sent and complaints, if any. Potassium dichromate is usually used to preserve the sample for analysis.  If the acidity of the collected milk is more than 0.15% lactic acid (LA), it should be treated as sour milk. Methylene Blue Reduction Test (MBRT) of the raw milk at the time of reception should be minimum 30 min. 6.17 Equipment at the Milk Collection Centre  Milk collection tray  Milk strainer  Milk sampler  Sample bottles  Sample bottle tray  Milk measures: 2 L/ 1 L/ 0.5 L/ 0.2 L  Plunger  Al alloy/plastic milk cans  Plastic bucket and mug 6.18 Equipment and Glassware for Milk Testing  Gerber centrifuge  Butyrometers with stand  Butyrometers shaking rack  Lactometer with jar  Thermometer  Milk pipettes with stand  Acid bottle with tilt measure  Alcohol bottle with tilt measure  Lock stopper  Jerry cans for acid/ alcohol 29  Market Milk 6.19 Registers  Pass books/monthly cards  Purchase registers  Testing note book  Payment registers  Members’ registers  Cash book  General ledger  Dead stock register 6.20 Sophisticated Equipments used in Milk Collection Centers 6.20.1 Electronic milk tester This instrument measures fat percentage, which is displayed quickly and accurately on a digital readout. It follows the system of dilution, mixing, homogenization and photometric measurement. It requires small volume of milk sample and can perform 120-150 tests per hour with auto zero facility. Its fat measuring range is 0 to 13%. 6.20.2 Electronic SNF tester This instrument is designed to perform 100 tests per hour and it gives instant digital display without the help of a chart or table. It does not require any chemical and is microprocessor-based. Its SNF measuring range is 0 to 12%. It can be used in conjunction with Electronic Milk Fat Tester. 6.20.3 Portable milk analyzer This instrument is designed to measure fat (0.5 to 12%), SNF (6 to 12%), protein (2 to 5%), density / corrected lactometer reading (20-40) and added water (0-60%) for milk sample in about a minute. It does not require chemicals and is suitable for cow, buffalo and mixed milks. It works on ultra-sound technology and is useful in field as well as in laboratory. 6.20.4 Infra red milk analyzer (Milko-Scan) It was J.D.S. Goulden of the National Institute for Research in Dairying, Reading, England who demonstrated in 1961 that the difference spectrum of water and homogenized milk at 5.73, 6.46, 7.9 and 9.6 µ could be used to estimate percentages of fat, protein, solids-not-fat and lactose in milk. 6.20.4.1 Principle The infrared milk analyzer measures absorptions of infrared energy by carbonyl groups (at 5.7 ?) in the ester linkages of fat molecules, by peptide (6.46 ?) linkages amino acids in protein molecules, and by hydroxyl groups (9.6 ?) of lactose molecules. The method is specific for measurement of intact fat, protein and lactose in milk. SNF is estimated by adding a constant to instrument values for protein and lactose, making this method more accurate and less time consuming than direct determination with the instrument. 6.20.4.2 Apparatus A prototype infrared milk analyzer (Mark I IRMA) was developed in 1964 by the research and development section of Sir Howard Gruble Parsons, England. Development of the Mark 2 IRMA began in 1966. It had an improved optical design, automatic sampling and analysis combined with the various types of automatic reporting equipment. These instruments were the split beam, dual cell type which compared the infrared absorption of the sample to that of water at specific wave lengths selected by the prism or diffraction grating. The major limitations of these instruments 30  Market Milk were relatively long light path, complex optical system, relatively unstable infrared energy source, poor signal- to-noise ratio, moisture-sensitive detector, sensitivity to scattering, and outdated electronics (transistors and tubes) which were susceptible to decay. Most of these limitations were due to the state of art at the time the instruments were developed and, regardless of these factors, they worked well and were accurate enough to establish and serve in milk analysis. In 1975, Foss Electric Co., introduced the first single cell, dual wavelength infrared milk analyzers (Milko-Scans 203 and 300). They used optical filters to isolate the specific wave lengths absorbed by fat, proteins, and lactose and reference wavelengths not absorbed by these components, thus eliminating the need for a diffraction grating. This approach was implemented to reduce water displacement and scattering effects. A number of other changes also were made, such as reducing the number of mirrors, shortening the light path, using lower energy and more stable infrared source, and using solid state electronics. The use of a single cell makes the instrument more susceptible to water vapour, and to circumvent this problem, it is provided with a moisture-proof compartment. These instruments also use automatic electronic corrections for cross interference effects and are capable of assessing one of two additional variables, either water or total solids. The milko-scan 100 series represents a second generation of the single cell, dual wavelength instruments manufactured by Foss Electric Company. A number of changes were incorporated in this instrument based on the experience gained with the Milko-Scans 203 and 300. Some of the changes incorporated were removing the servo comb, reducing the number of mirrors from 9 to 2, using a thermostatted filter housing, relocating the chopper, improving transmission characteristics of the filters, and using an improved detector. All primary instrument-signals are processed electronically to apply the cross corrections which are set directly into the instrument. Like the Milko-Scan 203, the Milko-Scan 104 is capable of determining fat, protein, lactose, and water or total solids. But it is semiautomatic rather than a completely automatic instrument. 6.20.5 Electronic weighing scales These weighing scales are available in various capacities from 2 kg to 500 kg. 6.20.6 Raw milk reception dock (RMRD) automation system This system takes care of reception of milk in cans coming from several villages. The system is modular in nature, flexible and can be upgraded. It draws a milk sample and premixes it automatically and collects it in a bottle, which is sent to laboratory. After weighing, the milk is drained automatically into dump tank and the drain valve gets closed automatically. The weighing and milk testing data are displayed with single key operation. The system involves Windows Server 2000/2003 Pentium IV, Windows 98 ME/XP nodes for milk testing station and weighing station, Milko-Scan or Electronic Milk Tester and networking accessories. The system provides various outputs viz. truck sheet, milk collection report, time management report, analysis report and a summary report. 6.20.7 Bulk milk cooling tanks These tanks when loaded with milk can cool it down from 30°C to 4°C in 3 h. The tanks are available in 250 L, 500 L, and 2 to 5 KL capacity. The integral condensing unit is hermetically sealed and uses R-22 refrigerant. These are built with stainless steel and with agitator assembly, on/off switches for agitator and, cooling and digital display of temperature. A model is available which claims that it senses the quantity of milk in tank and proportionately switches on the required refrigeration system, saving energy. ******☺ ****** 31  Market Milk Lesson 7 PRESERVATION OF RAW MILK 7.1 Introduction Milk leaves the udder at body temperature of about 38°C. The bacterial load may grow rapidl y and bring about curdling and other undesirable changes if milk is held at the ambient temperature. Freshly drawn raw milk should be promptly cooled and held at 4°C till processing to preserve it against bacterial deterioration. 7.2 Importance of Chilling of Milk Normally milk contains bacteria coming from the animal’s udder, milk vessels and handling persons. When the milk leaves the udder, bacteria grow well at the ambient temperature (20-40°C) and milk starts deteriorating. Bacterial growth factor goes down to 1.05 at 5°C and 1.00 at 0°C. Critical temperature for bacterial growth is 10°C. The growth factor at 10°C is 1.80 which rises to 10.0 at 15°C. Hence freshly drawn raw milk should be promptly cooled to 5°C or below and held at that temperature till it is processed. 7.3 Methods of Chilling 7.3.1 Can immersion The milk from pails is poured directly into cans through a strainer. The cans of milk are gently lowered into a tank holding cold water. The water level in the tank should be lower than the level of milk in cans to prevent water entering into the milk. In this method, a much smaller refrigeration unit is needed. The cans are kept cooled at the desired temperature (5-7°C) and the capacity of the unit is 200-280 litres of milk. 7.3.2 Surface cooler The milk is distributed over the outer surfaces of the cooling tubes from the top by means of a distributor pipe and flows down in a continuous thin stream. The cooling medium mostly chilled water is circulated in the opposite direction through inside of the tubes. Cooled milk is collected below in a receiving trough, from which it is discharged. 7.3.2.1 Advantages  Transfers heat rapidly and efficiently  Relatively in-expensive  Aerates the milk and thus improves the flavour 7.3.2.2 Disadvantages  Requires constant attention of flow rate.  Greater chances for air-borne contamination  Cleaning and sanitation is not very efficient.  There is slight evaporation loss. 7.3.3 Immersion cooler Evaporating unit of a refrigeration unit is submerged directly into cans. Evaporator coil is fitted with an agitator. Milk is agitated for quick and proper transfer of heat from milk to refrigerant. 32  Market Milk 7.3.4 Rotor freeze In this system, evaporating unit cools the water which in turn cools the milk in can. Several cans of milk can be cooled at a time. The milk cans are placed over the water tank and connected with chilled water circulation system which has specially designed can covers that are attached with chilled water pipe. 7.3.5 Cabinet cooler It has a series of surface coolers installed close together in a vertical position. Capacity of cabinet cooler to cool the milk depends upon the number of sections in surface coolers. This type of cooler requires very small floor space for installation. 7.3.6 Bulk milk cooler Bulk tank coolers are run by mechanical refrigeration system which cools the milk rapidly. These coolers maintain the temperature automatically during storage. Milk can be poured directly from milking pails into the tanks. This method is suitable for handling 500-2500 L milk/day. It is widely used at village level milk collection centers in India. From the Bulk milk cooler (BMC), the milk is pumped to the insulated tankers for transportation to dairy plants. The BMC uses horizontal or vertical cylindrical tanks with inner jacket and insulated body on the other side. There is provision of inner shell of the tank or direct expansion refrigerant coil for cooling. Milk is directly poured into the tank or pumped into the tank. Milk remains in contact with the inner shell of the tank cooling it to 4°C. The agitator is provided for uniform cooling. 7.3.7 Plate chiller It is widely used for large scale cooling of milk (5000 to 60,000 L/day) at the chilling centers. They are highly efficient, compact and easily cleaned. In chiller, the gasketed plates are tightly held between the frames. These plates are so arranged that a flow passage for milk exists on one side of plate and chilled water on the other side. There is a counter- current flow between the milk and chilled water through the alternate plates. It helps in efficient transfer of heat from the milk to the cooling medium resulting in quick chilling of milk. The chilled milk flows from the plate cooler to the insulated storage tank at 4°C. A mechanical refrigeration system with Ice Bank Tank - IBT is needed. 7.3.8 Internal tubular cooler It is a continuous cooling system consisting of a stainless steel tube of about 2.5 – 5.0 cm in diameter surrounded by a similar tube, forming a concentric cylinder. Several such tubes may be connected in series to obtain sufficient cooling. The cooling medium flows in opposite direction to the milk flow. 7.3.9 Vat/tank cooling For batch cooling, small volume is desirable. It consists of a tank within the tank, with the space between the two being used for circulating the cooling medium by pump. An agitator is provided for efficient agitation. 7.4 Milk Chilling Centre Due to scattered milk production by the small farmers and lesser number of organized dairy farms, the milk chilling centers are the alternative solution to the collection and chilling of milk. 7.4.1 Objectives  To preserve the quality of raw milk supplies. 33  Market Milk  To enable transportation of milk to the dairy plant without spoilage. 7.4.2 Location This is guided by:  Adequate milk production  Adequate potable water supply  Proximity to a good road or railway station  Electricity supply  Sewage disposal facilities 7.4.3 Major items of equipment  Milk weighing tank/ pan and electronic weighing balance  Drop or dump tank with cover  Can washer  Milk pump  Plate cooler  Storage tank  Refrigeration unit  Cold room  Milk testing unit 7.4.4 Operational procedure On arrival of the milk to the milk chilling center, the milk is graded for acceptance/payment, weighed, sampled for testing, cooled and stored at a low temperature (5°C) till dispatch to the processing dairy plant. ******☺ ****** 34  Market Milk Lesson 8 LACTOPEROXIDASE-THIOCYANATE (LP) SYSTEM 8.1 Introduction The perishable nature of milk makes it necessary to exercise extra care to preserve it. The tropical (hot and humid) climate of India further aggravates the problem. Milk meant for long distance transportation is always refrigerated to maintain its quality. However, refrigeration may not always be possible or available due to economic and/or technical reasons. Therefore the need to have a suitable alternative to refrigeration has been felt since long. An FAO/WHO Expert Panel on Milk Quality suggested addition of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O2 ) as an alternative. This was not popular for several reasons, mostly related to the proper control of its usage.  Milk of poor quality could be disguised and passed of as good quality milk  Higher concentration of H2 O2 is toxic Research conducted in the 1960s on colostrum in Sweden led to the discovery of naturally occurring enzymes and their positive effect on preservation systems. One such enzyme was lactoperoxidase (LP).  It is an oxido-reductase enzyme  It occurs in milk, saliva, tears, cervical mucus  It is a single polypeptide chain with a molecular weight of 77,000 – 100,000. Cow milk has 1.4 units/ml of LP, whereas buffalo milk has 0.9 units/ml. The amount of LP required for preservation is 0.5-1 mg/l, much lower than its concentration in cow milk (30 mg/l). It is a relatively heat resistant enzyme which retains sufficient activity even after pasteurization. Thiocyanate is widely distributed in animal tissues and secretions. Its level is dependent on dietary habits and lifestyle (for example, smokers have a higher level of thiocyanate in their system). Thiocyanate is the product of detoxification of thioaminoacids and cyanides and is secreted in urine with a half life of elimination of 2.5 days under normal renal function. Bovine milk has 2-15 ppm thiocyanate, though higher values have also been reported. Lactoperodixase can oxidise thiocyanate ions in the presence of H 2O2 , which is not normally present in milk. Even if present, it is in minute quantities, as a result of bacterial activity. The LP-thiocyanate system can be explained with the following chemical reactions: Hypothiocyanous acid dissociates into hypothiocyanite at the pH of milk 35  Market Milk There are other end products besides these, such as sulphate, ammonia and carbon dioxide. The intermediary products of the LP-thiocyanate reaction are implicated in bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities. The presence of large quantities of sulphydral groups (-SH) such as those occurring in boiled milk would reduce/eliminate the antibacterial effect because the OSCN- ions would then attach to these freely available groups. Raw milk has very few SH- groups and therefore, the LP-system is most effective in raw milk. 8.2 Effect of LP System against Bacteria The bacteriostatic/ bacterioacidal effect of the LP system is species- and strain- specific. In a mixed flora dominated by mesophilic bacteria, the effect is largely bacteriostatic. The system exhibits bacteriocidal effect on some Gram negative organisms such as Pseudomonas sp. and E. coli. In case exogenous H2 O2 is present, the effect may also be bacteriostatic. The LP system has an impact on the glycolytic enzymes and hence, the metabolic activity is adversely affected. Lysis occurs due to leaking of bacterial contents.  Owing to the bacteriostatic effect, it is not possible to hide poor quality of milk. The high bacterial counts will be revealed during plating, MBRT etc.  The antibacterial oxidation products are not heat stable. The stability is temperature dependent, leading to complete destruction by pasteurization.  The oxidation products are not stable at neutral pH. Any surplus will decompose to thiocyanate.  The preservation effect is directly proportional to the thiocyanate concentration, provided equimolar concentration of H2 O2 is present. In practice small quantities of thiocyanate is added to make up the concentration  The quantity of H2 O2 to be added must be monitored. If excess quantity is added (for example, 300-800 ppm), lactoperoxidase is inactivated and preservation effect is then largely due to H2O2. 8.3 Method of Adoption The LP system may be used when technical, economic and/or practical reasons do not permit chilling. It is not recommended for the use of individual farmers. It should be practiced only at collection centers with proper cleaning and sanitizing facilities. The manpower deputed to handle the system should be given adequate training. The dairy that receives the milk should monitor the system. Appropriate detection methods should be set up to avoid foul practices. The LP system does not eliminate the need for the normal clean milk production methods that are adopted at farm levels. It does not exclude the need for pasteurization before consumption 36  Market Milk The preservation effect is temperature-dependent. The preservation effect under laboratory and field experimental conditions for stored milk which had been produced hygienically are listed in Table 8.1. Table 8.1. Preservation effect of LP system at different temperatures 8.4 Practical Application 1. At the village collection centre, each clean and washed milk can should be given a 3 min chlorine rinse (400 ppm) immediately before milk is poured into it. 2. Sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) should be added @ 14 mg/l milk and mixed well for a minute with a plunger. 3. Sodium percarbonate (precursor of H2 O2 ) should be added @ 30 mg/l milk and stirred well for 2-3 min. o This sequence of addition should be followed because the enzyme action starts when H2 O2 added and is completed within 5 min of addition of H 2 O2. o This rate of addition will provide 75 ppm of NaSCN and 50 ppm of H2 O2 as percarbonate. o The LP activation must be done within 2-3 hours of milking 4. After 10 hours of milking (or 7 hours of first treatment), a booster dose of 35 ppm H2 O2 (~ 20 mg sodium percarbonate per litre milk) should be mixed into milk. 5. To make the practice easy, the quantities of NaSCN and sodium percarbonate for a certain volume of milk (say 40 l) should be distributed to collection points in prepacked quantities, say for a few weeks at a time. 8.5 Monitoring the Practice The usage of the system can be monitored through acidity, MBRT, Resazurin reduction test, total viable count and analysis of thiocyanate concentrations. 8.6 Effect on Milk Quality  Field trials conducted in Kenya, Sudan, Mexico, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and India report that untreated milk spoiled within two hours whereas treated milk was preserved for different durations depending on the temperature of milk.  There was no difference on the preservation effect of cow and buffalo milk.  The quality of initial milk was, in all cases, proportional to the time taken for spoilage.  A strong bacteriostatic effect was reported on mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria and also spores.  Total and proteolytic psychrotrophs were also affected. ******☺ ****** 37  Market Milk Lesson 9 TRANSPORTATION OF MILK 9.1 Introduction In rural India milk production is largely a subsidiary activity to agriculture in contrast to organized dairying in western countries. Small farmers and landless labourers usually maintain one to three milch animals. As a result, small quantities of milk are produced by each of the dairy farmers who are widely spread all over the country. This situation makes the task of m ilk collection and transportation complex. For efficient transportation, planning of routes by means of extensive survey is most important. In this connection, one must consider the availability of milk, road access to the milk collection points and their distance from the site of the dairy plant. The collected milk is generally filled in cans for transportation to the chilling center or directly to the milk plant. Milk must be brought to the chilling or dairy plant within three hours of milking. 9.2 Transportation of Milk The milk should be transported to the dairies under chilled conditions (< 4°C) to prevent bacterial growth. In India, raw milk collected at various collection centers in the rural areas is dispatched to the dairy plant in two ways: 9.2.1 Transporting milk through cans Suitable when milk volume handled is low. 9.2.2 Transporting milk through tankers (2000 to 10,000 liters of chilled milk) Th