M.A. History Paper III: History of Europe (1789-1919) PDF

1 FRENCH REVOLUTION-I BACKGROUND OF THE REVOLUTION Objectives: 1. To understand the nature of the Ancient Regime that existed in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789. 2. To have an insight into the political, social and economic conditi...

1 FRENCH REVOLUTION-I BACKGROUND OF THE REVOLUTION Objectives: 1. To understand the nature of the Ancient Regime that existed in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789. 2. To have an insight into the political, social and economic conditions in France which ultimately led to the Revolution of 1789. 1.1. Introduction Towards the end of the eighteenth century, an uprising staged by the French people against the autocracy and aristocracy, which came to be known as the French Revolution, shook Europe. The French Revolution brought about a major transformation of the society and political system in France that lasted from 1789 to 1799. During the course of the Revolution, France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy, where the king monopolized power, to a republic of theoretically free and equal citizens. The effects of the French Revolution were widespread, both inside and outside of France, and the Revolution ranks as one of the most important events in the history of Europe. During the ten years of the Revolution, France first transformed and then dismantled the Ancient Regime (Old Order), the political and social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it with a series of different governments. Although none of these governments lasted more than four years, the many initiatives they enacted permanently altered France‘s political system. These initiatives included the drafting of several bills of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal equality among all citizens, experiments with representative democracy, the incorporation of the church into the state, and the reconstruction of state administration and the law code. Many of these changes were adopted elsewhere in Europe as well. Change was a matter of choice in some places, but in others it was imposed by the French army during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1797) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). To later generations of Europeans and non-Europeans, who sought to overturn their political and social systems, the French Revolution provided the most influential model of popular insurrection until the Russian Revolution of 1917.  2 1.2 Background of the French Revolution of 1789: Historians are not unanimous regarding the factors that brought about the Revolution of 1789 in France. To some extent at least, the Revolution broke out not because France was backward but because the country‘s economic and intellectual development was not matched by social and political change that was taking place in France. In the fixed order of the ancient regime most bourgeoisie were unable to exercise political and social influence in the state. King Louis XIV, by consolidating absolute monarchy had destroyed the roots of feudalism, yet outward feudal forms persisted and became increasingly burdensome. Lord Chesterfield described the conditions in France on the eve of the Revolution in the following words: ―A monarchy that was despotic and weak; a corrupt and worldly church; a nobility increasingly parasitical; a bankrupt exchequer; and irritated bourgeois; and oppressed peasantry; financial, administrative and economic anarchy, a nation strained and divided by misgovernment and mutual suspicion.‖ Such was the background that existed in France prior to the Revolution of 1789. 1.2.1 Political Background: 1.2.1. a. Ancient Regime (Old Order): In order to understand the factors that were responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, it is important to examine the conditions and institutions that existed in France prior to the Revolution. These conditions and institutions were collectively known as the Ancient Regime. Ancient Regime means Old Rule or Old Order in French language. In English the term refers primarily to the political and social system that was established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. More generally it means any regime which includes the defining features such as: a feudal system under the control of a powerful absolute monarchy supported by the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit consent of the established Church. This was how Europe had been organized since at least the eighth century. The term Ancient Regime is from The Age of Enlightenment (first appeared in print in English in 1794). Similar to other sweeping criticisms of the past, such as the term ‗Dark Ages‘, the concept of Ancient Regime was used as an expression of disapproval for the way things were done, and carried an implied approval of a ‗New Order‘. No one alive during the Ancient regime considered himself as living under an ‗Old Order‘. The term was created by Enlightenment era authors to promote a new cause and discredit the existing order.  3 As defined by the creators of the term, the Ancient Regime developed out of the French monarchy of the Middle Ages, and was swept away centuries later by the French Revolution of 1789. Europe‘s other Ancient Regimes had similar origins, but diverse ends; some gradually became constitutional monarchies, others were torn down by wars and revolutions. Power in the Ancient Regime relied on three pillars: the monarchy, the clergy and the aristocracy. Society was divided into three classes known as estates: the clergy, the nobility and the commoners. 1.2.1. b.Royal Absolutism: The politico-social system which existed in France throughout the rule of the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, was half way between feudalism and modernity. France was ruled by a powerful absolute monarch who relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. The absolute monarchy had the explicit support of the established Church. This period in the history of France is often said to have begun with the French renaissance during the reign of Francis I (1515-1547), and to have reached its peak under Louis XIV (1643-1715). As the Italian Renaissance began to fade, France became the cultural capital of Europe. Eventually, however, financial difficulties and excesses of the rulers led to the decline and eventual collapse of the monarchy by the end of the eighteenth century. The system of Ancient Regime culminated in the monarch, the lofty and glittering head of the state. The king claimed to rule by the will of God and not by the consent of the people (Theory of the Divine Right of Kings). Thus, the kings claimed to be responsible to no one but God. The French Kings ruled in an absolute manner. They exercised unlimited powers. They were the chief legislators, executive and dispensers of justice. They imposed taxes and spent money as they pleased. They declared wars and made peace as they wished. They denied certain basic rights to their subjects. Heavy censorship denied freedom of speech and press. Arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, exile or even execution was the hallmarks of the royal absolutism in France. 1.2.1. c. Nature of the Bourbon Rulers: The Bourbon dynasty ruled France for about two centuries from 1589 to 1792. France attained the height of glory under Louis XIV. He was known as the ‗Grand Monarch‘ and ‗Sun King‘. He believed in the divine sanction of absolutism. He used to say ―I am the State.‖ Further he claimed: ―The sovereign authority is vested in my person, the legislative powers exist in myself alone…My people are one only with me; national rights and national interests are necessarily combined with my own and only rest in my hands.‖ In order to manifest his power and glory, Louis XIV led the nation in dangerous and expensive wars against his neighbours and undertook construction of magnificent buildings to beautify the capital city of Paris. Thus, his  4 expensive wars and lavish style of living weakened France financially as well as politically. More than any other construction of the age, the Palace of Versailles, built by Louis XIV embodied the spirit of absolute monarchy. The magnificent halls, ornate rooms and beautiful gardens surrounding the royal residence added to the grandeur of the Versailles Palace. The aristocracy of France assembled day and night to do homage to the great ruler of France. The court of Versailles which dazzled Europe was comprised of 18,000 people. Out of these 16,000 were attached to the personal service of the king and his family and 2,000 were the courtiers, the favoured guests and nobles. The royal stables contained 1900 horses and more than 200 carriages. In 1789, the total cost of the Versailles extravaganza was $ 20,000,000. Yet, Versailles which symbolized the glory of the Ancient Regime was also the mark of its decline. Its cost to the French nation was too much. Besides, it created a barrier between monarchy and its subjects. Louis XIV, the Grand Monarch left a legacy of financial bankruptcy for his successors. While on deathbed, he is said to have advised his successor Louis XV, his great grand son, in these words: ―My child,…endeavour to live at peace with your neighbours, do not imitate my fondness for war, not the exorbitant expenditure which I have incurred…Endeavour to relieve the people at the earliest possible moment and thus accomplish what unfortunately, I am unable to do myself.‖ Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded his great grand father at the age of five. The first part of the long reign of 59 years falls into the period of Regency (1715-1723) during which period his great uncle, the Duke of Orleans ruled in his name. The confusion and disorder of the Regency was followed by almost two decades of orderly rule and material prosperity under the leadership of the aged Cardinal Fleury (1723-1743). From 1743 until his death in 1774, Louis XV tried to exercise direct control over the government which ultimately led to the instability of the monarchy. Louis XV displayed an apathy and indifference to the affairs of the state. He was concerned primarily with the pursuit of pleasure and all his life he sought to escape from boredom. Thus, he tried to seek happiness in mad and vicious rounds of pleasure, in hunting, in gambling, in lust, in moving his court from one palace to another, in gratifying the whims and fancies of his numerous mistresses and favourites.  5 For more than thirty years Louis XV continued through his shameful policies the worst features of the Ancient Regime. He also followed a disastrous foreign policy that culminated in the humiliation of the Seven years War (1756-63). His government became increasingly inefficient which was controlled by his mistresses. His enormous court incurred heavy expenditure on the state treasury. All these developments opened the gates of the deluge that swept over France. Louis XV escaped the disaster. However, he could not prevent the progress of new political and social philosophy that repudiated the theory and practice of the irresponsible and arbitrary royal absolutism. The Austrian ambassador at Paris, Comte de Mercy writing to Empress Marie Theresa outlined the conditions in France at the end of Louis XV‘s reign in these words: ―At court, there is nothing but confusion, scandals and injustice. No attempt has been made to carry out good principles of government; everything has been left to chance; the shameful state of the nation‘s affairs has caused unspeakable disgust and discouragement, while intrigues of those who remain on the scene only increase the disorder. Sacred duties have been left undone, and infamous behaviour tolerated.‖ The reign of Louis XV ended in 1774 with his death. To his successor he left a heritage of military defeat, financial bankruptcy, parlementary opposition and intellectual resistance to the existing political and social regime. According to Dr. G.P. Gooch, ―The legacy of Louis XV to his countrymen was an ill-governed, discontented, frustrated France. Viewed from a distance, the Ancient Regime appeared as solid as the Bastille, but its walls were crumbling for lack of repairs and the foundations showed signs of giving way. The absolute monarchy, the privileged nobles, the intolerant church, the close corporation parlements, had all become unpopular, and the army once the glory of France, was tarnished by the rout at Rossbach. Though there was little thought of republicanism, the mystique of monarchy had almost evaporated.‖ In 1774, following the death of Louis XV, his grandson, Louis XVI (1774-93) became the king of France at the age of twenty. The new king was an honest and energetic young man who tried to attend to the state affairs. But he tried to avoid difficulties and lacked the capacity to enforce his own judgment. His irresolution made him a blind follower of his advisors, particularly his Queen Marie Antoinette. She was the daughter of Marie Theresa, Empress of Austro-Hungarian Empire. Marie Antoinette was beautiful, gracious and vivacious. She had a strong will, a power of quick decision and a spirit of initiative. However, she lacked in wisdom and breadth of judgment. She did not understand the temperament of the French people and the spirit of the times. Being born in a royal family she could not understand the point of view of the underprivileged. She was extravagant, proud, willful, impatient and fond of pleasure. She  6 was the centre of a group of greedy persons, who were opposed to all reforms. She excelled in intrigues and was responsible for the many sufferings that befell both the ruler and the ruled during the closing years of the eighteenth century. 1.2.1. d. Inefficient and Corrupt Administrative System: Under Louis XV and Louis XVI, the French administrative system became thoroughly inefficient and corrupt. The king was the head of the state and the head of the administrative structure. He had the authority to appoint ministers and other administrative officials. Ministers were appointed on the basis of their noble birth or favouritism and not because of ability or merit. This led inefficiency and corruption in the administration. Various departments of the administration had ill-defined and overlapping jurisdictions. At different times France had been divided into districts under bailiffs, into provinces under governors, into intendancies under intendants. Besides, there were judicial, educational and ecclesiastic districts. The conflict of jurisdiction added to the difficulties and problems of the people. Prior to the Revolution of 1789, France was divided into 34 Intendancies. These Intendancies were placed under Intendants. They were selected at first from the ranks of the bourgeois. They were made an integral part of the machinery of the local government. These Intendants possessed great authority. They had the right to administer justice in all Royal Courts. They verified accounts of their subordinate financial administrators. They also attended to the assessment and levy of direct taxes. They controlled movement of the army, organized regular recruitment for the army and directed the Municipal police. The Intendants received their authority directly from the Councils. Legally, the Councils and the Ministers had only an advisory capacity. They were responsible only to the King. There was neither a representative assembly nor a written constitution to limit the authority of the administrators. Conflict of jurisdiction and rivalries among the administrators, the absence of an executive head in their own midst to formulate long-term policies and projects, overlapping non-differentiated departments and tradition of graft and irresponsible, high-handed procedures taxed the patience of even the most conscious and determined servant of the state. According to the absolutist theory, all justice in France came from the Monarch, whose officials administered it in his name in the many Royal Courts of Justice, which were established throughout the country. However, the legal system in France was full of confusion. There was no uniform law for the whole country. Different laws were in force in different part of the country. It was  7 estimated that there were as many as 400 different systems of law in the country. The laws were written in Latin, and thus, they were beyond the comprehension of the common people. The laws were cruel and unjust. Severe punishments were prescribed for ordinary offences. There was no regular criminal procedure. Arbitrary arrest and imprisonment were common. Any influential person could get a letter of cachet issued against the person whom he wanted to punish and the person concerned could be detained in prison for an indefinite period without any trial. There were royal courts, military courts, church courts and courts of finance. Their overlapping jurisdiction added to the confusion and injustice. Thus, the common people in France suffered due to lack of uniform laws and arbitrary administration of justice. There was no guarantee of personal liberty. The French Kings ruled France without summoning the legislature known as the Estates General since 1614. Louis XIV even abolished the parlement of Paris. The French parlements were high courts of great antiquity. They had the power to review the judgments given in the inferior courts. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, there were thirteen such parlements in France. Each parlement consisted of rich magistrates whose office had become hereditary in course of time. Parlements claimed and exercised certain political powers. They had the right of registering royal edicts and ordinances. They could defer the registration and thereby bring pressure on the King. In 1771, Louis XV abolished these parlements. But they were revived by Louis XVI in 1774. 1.2.2. Social Conditions: The social conditions in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789 were antiquated, irrational and oppressive. The French society was based upon the principle of inequality. The French society comprising of around 25 million people was divided into three classes also known as the estates. The clergy constituted the first estate, the nobility, the second estate and the commoners, the third estate. 1.2.2. a. Privileges of the Clergy and the Nobility: The clergy and the nobility comprised one per cent of the total population of France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789. These two estates being the privileged classes: (1) owned most of the land in France; (2) collected special feudal and church dues from the commoners; (3) were exempted from most of the taxes; (4) were the friends and ministers of the King; and (5) were granted special favours while administering the law. The clergy of the Roman Catholic Church was rich and powerful. The higher clergy was comprised of the archbishops, bishops and the abbots. They lived luxuriously in their palaces and monasteries. The Church owned nearly a fifth of the land in France. The Church  8 land yielded a large amount of revenue. In addition, the clergy collected tithes (One-tenth of the total produce) on agricultural products. A large part of the Church income went to the higher clergy numbering around five to six thousand. Many of the higher clergy resided at the Royal Court. On the other hand, the large number of the lower clergy, who did the real work were deprived of many of the privileges enjoyed by the higher clergy. While the higher clergy belonged to the nobility, the lower clergy usually came from the third estate. The nobility of France occupied a peculiar position in the French society. It was no longer the landed nobility of the feudal days; neither were they nobility of office. They merely claimed their position by virtue of their birth and enjoyed certain privileges. They were called the ‗Grand Nobles‘. About a thousand of them lived at Versailles as courtiers. The country nobles lived on their estates in the provinces. The new nobles were not nobles of birth but men from the middle class who had grown rich and purchased the privileges of the nobility of the birth. They were known as the ‗nobility of the robe‘. The nobles had lost all political power. They either entered the army or the church. Important public offices like ambassadors were reserved for them. A majority of the nobles had no lands and derived their income from their old feudal rights. They were exempted from the bulk of the taxes. The nobility as a whole enjoyed one special privilege which was a serious and unnecessary injury to the peasants. That was the exclusive right of hunting, which was the chief pastime and sport of the nobles. Although the game destroyed their crops, the peasants were required not to disturb the game and thus, suffer the loss of their crops for the pleasure of the nobles. 1.2.2. b. Underprivileged Commoners: Below the two privileged classes (clergy and nobility) were the underprivileged commoners known as the third estate. The third estate was sub-divided into the bourgeoisie (middle class), the artisans and the peasants. The bourgeois comprised of lawyers, physicians, teachers, merchants, bankers, manufacturers and men of literature. Many of them were rich, intelligent, energetic, educated and well to do. This class especially resented the existing political and social conditions in France. Belonging to the third estate, but beneath the bourgeois were the artisans living in towns and cities. They were comparatively a smaller class as the industrial life in France was not yet highly developed. These artisans were usually organized in guilds.  9 The peasants formed the majority of the third estate. France was an agricultural country. Thus, more than ninety per cent of the population was peasants. About a million of the peasants were serfs. The rest were free men, but they were all discontented against the existing system of the government and social organization. The burden of the society was on their shoulder. Nearly the entire revenue of the government was raised from the third estate. The peasants paid nearly 55% in taxes of what they produced or earned. The peasants paid taxes to the state, tithes to the Church, and feudal dues to the nobles. The peasants paid tolls to the nobles for the use of the roads and bridges in their estates. The peasants were forced to use the flour mill, oven and winepress of the nobles and paid for the service. The peasants also paid indirect taxes like the gabelle (salt tax). The abuse connected with the administration of the salt-tax was the most glaring and scandalous. The salt-tax collectors called gabellous were the most hated by the French people. In France, each family was required by law to buy annually a specific amount of salt for household use. The price of the salt was very high in northern and central provinces and less in others. As a result many individuals turned into smugglers bringing in salt from the provinces where the rate of the salt was cheaper. Under these circumstances the gabellous used to make house to house searches and harass the people for hoarding of the salt. Besides the salt tax, the commoners had to pay the excise duty, taille (property tax), customs duties, etc. The feudal dues include corvee (forced labour) of two or three days and contribution in kind. The French peasants, suppressed, oppressed and depressed were discontented about their existing condition. They were on the verge of starvation. A large number of the peasants who knew nothing of he statecraft and who were ignorant of the destructive and subversive theories of Voltaire and Rousseau were quite aware of the necessity of reforms by the hard circumstances of their miserable lives. They felt that the feudal dues should be abolished, and that the excessive taxes of the state should be reduced. Thus, the third estate desired a change in the government, society and economic conditions. The large and growing middle class and some of the nobility and the working class had absorbed the ideology of equality and freedom of the individual. 1.2.3. Economic Conditions: Among the direct causes of the French Revolution was a massive financial crisis caused by the enormous debt, government‘s lavish spending and the antiquated system of taxation, which brought little money to the national treasury. The existing tax system had placed the greatest tax burden on the shoulders of the third estate and virtually ignored the first two estates of their responsibilities. Successive attempts at  10 reforming the system proved fruitless in the face of opposition from the clergy and the nobility. 1.2.3. a. Bankruptcy of the French Government: The French government faced bankruptcy of the worst type. Since 1614, the French monarchy had operated without summoning the legislature of France known as the Estates General. The successive Kings used to manage their fiscal affairs by increasing the burden of the ancient and unequal system of taxes, by borrowing money, and sometimes by selling noble titles and other privileges. However, noble titleholders were exempted from further taxes. On the eve of the Revolution, France was deeply in debt and was on the brink of bankruptcy. Extravagant expenditures by Louis XIV on luxuries such as the construction and maintenance of the magnificent palace of Versailles, the social extravaganza of the royal court during the reign of Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI and the luxurious taste of Marie Antoinette, queen of Louis XVI were compounded by heavy expenditure on the Seven Years War (1756- 63) and the American War of Independence (1776-83). The empty national treasury was the spark that set the French Revolution of 1789 in motion. While the French peasants were starving and dying, the royal court and the clergy and the nobles were having festivities and banquets. The French government mishandles the national economy. It had no regular budget. It wasted money without proper planning and the national debt went on increasing. 1.2.3. b. Heavy Taxes: Unlike the trading nations, France could not rely solely on tariffs to generate income. While average tax rates were higher in Britain, the burden on the common people was greater in France. Taxation in France relied on a system of internal tariffs separating the regions in France, which prevented a unified market from developing in the country. Taxes, such as the extremely unpopular gabelle were contracted out to private collectors who were permitted to collect far more than what the government demanded. This system led to an arbitrary and unequal collection of many of the consumption taxes in France. Further, the royal and feudal (signorial) taxes were collected in the form of compulsory labour (corvee). The system of taxation in France excluded the nobles and the clergy from having to pay taxes. The tax burden was thus, borne by the peasants, wage earners and the professional and business classes. These groups were also cut off from most positions of power in the regime causing a great deal of unrest among them. Many public officials had to buy their positions from the King. They tried to make profit out of their appointment not only to make up the money that they had to pay for heir positions but also to enjoy hereditary rights over these positions. For instance, in a civil  11 lawsuit, judges had to be paid some fees by the parties to the litigation. Such a practice put justice out of the reach of the common people. 1.2.3. c. Failure of Economic Reforms: During the regimes of Louis XV (1715-74) and Louis XVI (1774-93) different finance ministers were appointed to improve the financial condition of France. The most notable among them was Turgot (1774-76). On the subject of finances his mind was made up. In the first place he intended to follow a policy of strict economy. In a letter to the King Turgot outlined his views summarizing them in the phrase: ―No bankruptcy, no new taxes and no loans.‖ By rigid economy, Turgot effected satisfactory savings for the treasury. However, the King was reluctant to cut down royal expenditure. In order to improve the economic conditions of the people in general, Turgot issued the First Reform Edict in 1774, which was concerned with the grain trade. This edict abolished all government regulations related to the purchase and sale of grain and allowed full freedom in inter-provincial grain trade. However, Turgot‘s edict did not achieve much success. His enemies who were interested in the old system opposed his edict of reform. Besides, shortage of grains added to the failure of this experiment. Fear of famine brought disorder and there was an increase in grain prices. This resulted in widespread disturbances which came to be known as the ‗Grain War‘, which had to be severely put down. Thus, Turgot‘s experiment in liberalization of the agricultural sector ended in a failure. In spite of these failures, Turgot continued to suggest reforms. Early in 1776, he presented before the Parlement of Paris several other reforms. The two most important among them were the abolition of corvee and the disbandment of most of the guild corporations. He also proposed to introduce the principle of tax equality. Through this proposal he suggested that the privileged classes also should be taxed in order to raise additional revenue for the state. The reform proposal concerning the guilds intended to destroy their monopolies and restore the natural law of free competition. By doing away with the guilds, Turgot wanted to liberate the industry, advance commercial development, lower prices and allow the artisans the enjoyment of their natural right to labour. The proposed Reform Edicts of Turgot met with severe opposition from the Parlement of Paris. In spite of this opposition, Louis XVI ordered the registration of these edicts. However, Turgot and the King had to face opposition and hostility from most powerful groups and privileged classes such as guilds, parlements, court favourites and especially the Queen, Marie Antoinette. Under heavy pressure  12 from these quarters, Louis XVI had no other alternative but to dismiss Turgot from his position in 1776. The guild corporations were re-established and the privileged classes still remained outside the tax net. Following the dismissal of Turgot, after several months, Louis XVI appointed Necker (1776-81), the most famous of the bankers as the Director General of Finance. In order to improve financial resources of France, Necker, at first resorted to new loans and administrative reforms. However, the French support to the English colonies in America against England in the American War of Independence proved to be costly to the national treasury and national debt went on increasing by more than one and a half billion livres. The administrative reforms of Necker were sound, though hardly sufficient as a remedy. He suggested the reduction of many of the unnecessary offices, simplified the accounting system and began to limit the functions of the revenue farmers by taking over the collection of several of the taxes. He floated loans of several million livres without increasing taxes during the years of the war. These measures added to the reputation of Necker as a financial wizard. However, later he was forced to raise loans to pay the interest charges on the earlier loans. This led to the financial crisis. As the financial situation went out of control, Necker had no other option but to suggest that the privileged classes must be taxed. Following this suggestion, Necker met with the same fate as that of Turgot and was dismissed. Following the dismissal of Necker, Louis XVVI appointed some other ministers between 1781 and 1783 who tried to do their best in solving the financial chaos in France. In a desperate attempt to bail out the monarchy from the economic crisis and financial disaster, Louis XVI appointed Calonne (1783-87) who had the support of the Queen, Marie Antoinette. He was highly intelligent and resourceful person. He undertook his duties with a full realization of the gravity of the situation. Calonne believed that the best remedy for financial ailments of France was the restoration of the confidence of the people in the government and emphasized that the best way to restore the public confidence was to give the appearance of prosperity. Thus, Calonne threw economy to the winds and expanded the credit of the government by borrowing heavily from the capitalists. During his tenure of three years he borrowed a huge amount of money. A small part of the expenditure went to silence the opposition to his reforms such as publishers of newspapers and members of the Parlement of Paris. Certain amount was also spent to win the support of the royal family and the court. The greater part of the  13 funds went to meet the outstanding indebtedness and to promote public works. Thus, an artificial prosperity set in a boom period in France. Increased production held out new goods and employment increased and the income of the workers also increased considerably. Besides, France witnessed a few good agricultural seasons and commerce and industry did not suffer as war with England had officially ended by the Treaty of Paris (1783). Meanwhile, the government expenditure began to increase whereas its income from taxation lagged behind. The economic boom was like a bubble which burst very soon. In spite of a steady increase in taxes the annual deficit had risen to more than one hundred million livres. Under these circumstances the economic crisis was developing to serious proportions. France had reached a state of virtual bankruptcy. No one was ready to lend funds to the King which would be sufficient to meet the expenses of the government and the court. The loans amounted to one thousand six hundred and forty six millions and there was an annual deficit of a hundred and forty million livres. Finding that the economic crisis in France was beyond redemption, Calonne presented a secret memorandum to Louis XVI in which he laid down a comprehensive plan of reform. Louis XVI reluctantly gave Calonne his support to summon as Assembly of Notables comprising of 144 representatives of the three estates on 22 February 1787 to address the financial situation as he was certain that the Parlement of Paris would never approve his reform proposals. Calonne appeared before the Assembly of Notables, read an indictment of the Ancient Regime and then presented his reform proposals. In these proposals Calonne suggested: (1) the abolition of corvee; (2) abolition of internal customs; (3) permission for free grain trade within France; (4)extension of the system of provincial assemblies throughout France; (5) decreasing the burden of taille(property tax) and gabelle (salt tax); (6)transformation of the Bank of Discount into a State Bank; and (7) proposal to impose land tax payable by all propertied persons whether the clergy, nobility or the commoners. The members of the Assembly of Notables felt that by approving Calonne‘s reform proposals they themselves would put an end to their social supremacy, destroy their fiscal privileges and agree to a sweeping reform of the entire political, social and economic structure of France. The huge deficit that Calonne had incurred gave an opportunity to the Assembly of Notables to mask their selfish opposition to the reforms suggested by Calonne on the  14 pretext of public interest. The resistance to Calonne‘s proposed reforms was so much that Louis XVI was forced to dismiss him. Fearing for his life, Calonne fled to England. 1.2.2. d. Famines: The economic and financial problems of France were compounded by a great scarcity of food in the 1780s. Crop failure in the 1780s caused these shortages, which led to a steep increase in the price of the bread. The bread crisis was one of the chief causes that led to the mob of Paris to initiate the Revolution of 1789. The poor conditions in the countryside had forced the rural population to move into Paris and the city was overcrowded and filled with hungry and disaffected masses of people. 1.2.2. e. Taxes By Edicts: As the economic situation and financial condition in France began to worsen, Louis XVI tried to impose additional taxes by issuing Royal Edicts. However, he ahd to face strong opposition from different sections. As the bankruptcy of the state was beyond anybody‘s control, the King was advised to summon the defunct Estates General in order to bring about a solution to the economic crisis of the country. Louis XVI, hoping to get support for his tax proposals, agreed to summon the estates General. The meeting of the Estates general on 5 th May 1789, and subsequent events brought about the Revolution of 1789 in France. Questions 1. Discuss the conditions in France on the eve of the Revolution of 1789. 2. Analyze the political and social conditions in France prior to the Revolution of 1789. 3. How far the social and economic conditions were responsible for the outbreak of the Revolution of 1789 in France? 4. Examine the political and economic conditions in France on the eve of the Revolution of 1789. 5. Describe the political, social and economic factors that led to the Revolution of 1789 in France.   15 2 FRENCH REVOLUTION-II CONTRIBUTION OF THE PHILOSOPHERS Objectives: 1. To understand the intellectual background of the French Revolution of 1789. 2. To study the philosophical views of various French philosophers, especially related to the state and society. 3. To review the contribution of the Encyclopedists and Physiocrats to the understanding of the conditions prior to the French Revolution of 1789. 2.1. Introduction: In addition to the economic and social difficulties, the Ancient Regime was undermined intellectually by the apostles of the Enlightenment. The philosophers were extremely critical of the Ancient Regime. In their writings, the French philosophers discredited the old order and generated optimism about the future. The philosophers introduced ideas such as constitutional monarchy, republicanism, popular sovereignty and social equality and influenced the course of the Revolution. Voltaire attacked the church and absolutism; Montesquieu made English constitutionalism fashionable and advocated the Theory of Separation of Powers, Rousseau promoted the Social Contract Theory through which he highlighted his concept of popular sovereignty. His influence on the French Revolution was more direct than any other philosopher. Denis Diderot and the Encyclopedists, through articles on various subjects attacked tradition and the Ancient Regime. Physiocrats advocated economic reform. The following were the prominent French philosophers who inspired the French Revolution of 1789. The French philosophers were not conscious advocates of violent revolution. When the Revolution came, one of the philosophers who lived to witness its violence wrote: ―The philosophers did not want to do all that has been done, nor to use the means that have been employed, nor to act as rapidly as has been done‖. They were the enemies of ancient abuses that long demanded suppression. Reason prompted them to attack the forces of superstition, ignorance and folly that continued and incompetent administration, a crushing financial system, a barbarous judicial procedure, religious cruelty, economic waste and confusion.  16 In several ways the philosophers demonstrated the rottenness of the French institutions through satire and wit, criticism and comparison, analogy, sociological theory and downright abuse. The French philosophers challenged the tradition and authority of the King. They believed that the Ancient Regime must go in order to bring about a better world. The philosophers questioned the basis of authority that existed upon revelation (religion), formulated new theories, aroused new enthusiasm and fixed new ideas for all mankind. The philosophers were the standard bearers of a faith that spread from France through al the civilized world. While destroying the old order, they established the basis of a new order. 2.2. Voltaire (1694-1778): Voltaire's intelligence, wit and style made him one of France's greatest writers and philosophers. famous writer and critic, much sought after by Louis XV of France, Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia. Through his poems, biographies, histories, essays and dramas he attacked traditions and beliefs as well as existing institutions like the church and the state. Francois Marie Arouet (pen name Voltaire) was born on 21 November 1694 in Paris. He was the son of a notary. He was educated at the Jesuit Collège Louis-le-Grand where he said he learned nothing but ―Latin and Stupidities‖. He left school at 17 and soon made friends among the Parisian aristocrats. His humorous verses made him a favorite in society circles. Because of insults to the regent, Philippe II d‘Orléans, wrongly ascribed to him, Voltaire was sent to the Bastille in 1717 for 11 months. During his time in prison Francois Marie wrote "Oedipe" which was to become his first theatrical success and adopted his pen name "Voltaire." He also undertook the writing of an epic poem on Henry IV, the ―Henriade‖. It was at this time that he began to call himself Voltaire. Oedipe won him fame and a pension from the regent. Voltaire acquired an independent fortune through speculation; he was often noted for his generosity but also displayed shrewd business acumen throughout his life and became a millionaire. In 1726, a young nobleman, the Chevalier de Rohan, resented a witticism made at his expense by Voltaire who was beaten. Far from obtaining justice, Voltaire was imprisoned in the Bastille through the influence of the powerful Rohan family. He was released only upon his promise to go into exile to England. The episode left an indelible impression on Voltaire: for the rest of his life he exerted himself to his utmost in struggling against judicial arbitrariness. During his more than two years (1726–29) in England, Voltaire met the English literary men of the period. Voltaire was attracted to the philosophy of John Locke and ideas of mathematician and scientist, Sir Isaac Newton. He studied  17 England's Constitutional Monarchy and its religious tolerance. While in England, Voltaire wrote the first of his historical works. ―A History of Charles XII of Sweden‖, which remains a classic in biography. Voltaire was particularly interested in the philosophical rationalism of the time, and in the study of the natural sciences. He was impressed by the greater freedom of thought in England. Voltaire‘s ―Letters Concerning the English Nation‖, which appeared in 1733 in English, and in 1734 in French as ―Lettres Philosophiques‖, may be said to have initiated the vogue of English philosophy and science that characterized the literature of the Enlightenment. In this book, Voltaire praised English customs and institutions. In this work, Voltaire described the country, England, where opinion was free and government constitutional; where religious persecution was unknown and every one was permitted to go to heaven in his own way; where the middle class was as respectable as the nobility; where civil liberties were guaranteed and men of letters and sciences were honoured. Voltaire pointed out the lack of these praiseworthy features in the French polity and society. It was interpreted as criticism of the French government and in 1734, the book was formally banned in France and in 1734, Voltaire was forced to leave Paris again. After his return to France from England in 1729 and his banishment from Paris in 1734, Voltaire produced several tragedies. These included ‗Brutus‘ (1730) and ―Zaire‖ (1732). In 1733 he met Madam Emile du Châtelet, whose intellectual interests, especially in science, matched with his own. They took up residence together at Cirey, in Lorraine. In 1746, Voltaire was voted into the "Academie Francaise." In 1749, after the death of Emile du Chatelet and at the invitation of the King of Prussia, Frederick the Great, Voltaire moved to Potsdam, near Berlin in Germany. In 1753, Voltaire left Potsdam to return to France. In 1759, Voltaire purchased an estate called Ferney near the French-Swiss border where he lived until just before of his death. Ferney soon became the intellectual capital of Europe. Voltaire worked continuously throughout the years, producing a constant flow of books, plays and other publications. He wrote hundreds of letters to his circle of friends and received hosts of visitors who came to do homage to the ‗patriarch of Ferney‘. He was always a voice of reason. Voltaire was often an outspoken critic of religious intolerance and persecution and employed himself in seeking justice for victims of religious or political persecution and in campaigning against the practice of torture. He regularly contributed to the Encyclopedia and managed his estate, taking an active interest in improving the condition of his tenants.  18 Voltaire also edited the works of Corneille, wrote commentaries on Racine, and turned out a stream of anonymous novels and pamphlets in which he attacked the established institutions of his time. Ironically, it is one of these great works, ―Candide‖ (1759) that is most widely read today. It is the masterpiece among his ‗philosophical romances‘. In 1778, at the age of 84, Voltaire returned triumphantly to France to attend the first performance of his tragedy ―Irène‖ in Paris. But the emotion was too much for him and he died in Paris soon afterward. In order to obtain Christian burial he had signed a partial retraction of his writings. This was considered insufficient by the church, but he refused to sign a more general retraction. To a friend he gave the following written declaration: ―I die adoring God, loving my friends, not hating my enemies, and detesting persecution.‖ An abbot secretly conveyed Voltaire‘s corpse to an abbey in Champagne, where he was buried. His remains were brought back to Paris in 1791 and buried in the Panthéon. Through his philosophical writings, Voltaire became the torchbearer of the French Revolution of 1789. He boldly attacked the Ancient Regime and criticized the existing political and religious beliefs and institutions. His plays, historical works and philosophical writings inspired the French people to question the political, social and economic conditions that existed in France. 2.3. Montesquieu (1689-1755): Montesquieu was one of the great political philosophers of the Enlightenment. He constructed a naturalistic account of the various forms of government, and of the causes that made them what they were and that advanced or constrained their development. He used this account to explain how governments might be preserved from corruption. He considered despotism as a danger for any government not already despotic. In order to prevent despotism, Montesquieu argued that it could best be prevented by a system in which different bodies exercised legislative, executive, and judicial power, and in which all those bodies were bound by the rule of law. This theory of the separation of powers had an enormous impact on liberal political theory. Montesquieu‘s Theory of the Separation of Powers greatly contributed to the framing of the constitution of the United States of America and also inspired the French people in their Revolution against the autocratic regime in France. The original name of Montesquieu was Charles Louis de Secondat. He was born in Bordeaux, France, in 1689 to a wealthy family. Despite his family's wealth, De Secondat was placed in the care of a poor family during his childhood. He later went to college and  19 studied science and history, eventually becoming a lawyer in the local government. De Secondat's father died in 1713 and he was placed under the care of his uncle, Baron de Montesquieu. The Baron died in 1716 and left De Secondat his fortune, his office as president of the Bordeaux Parliament, and his title of Baron de Montesquieu. Later he became a member of the Bordeaux and French Academies of Science and studied the laws and customs and governments of the countries of Europe. He gained fame in 1721 with his ―Persian Letters‖, which criticized the lifestyle and liberties of the wealthy French as well as the church. However, Montesquieu's book ―On the Spirit of Laws‖, published in 1748, was his most famous work. It outlined his ideas on how government would best work. Montesquieu became famous with his ―Persian Letters‖ (1721), which criticized the lifestyle and liberties of the wealthy French as well as the church and national governments of France. The ―Persian Letters‖ is an epistolary novel consisting of letters sent to and from two fictional Persians, Usbek and Rica, who set out for Europe in 1711 and remain there at least until 1720, when the novel ends. While Montesquieu was not the first writer to try to imagine how European culture might look to travellers from non European countries, he used that device with particular brilliance. Many of the letters are brief descriptions of scenes or characters. At first their humor derives mostly from the fact that Usbek and Rica misinterpret what they see. In later letters, Usbek and Rica no longer misinterpret what they see; but hey find the actions of Europeans quite incomprehensible. They describe people who are so consumed by vanity that they become ridiculous. Usbek shares many of Montesquieu's own views such as the contrast between European and non-European societies, the advantages and disadvantages of different systems of government, the nature of political authority, and the proper role of law. The best government, he says, is that "which attains its purpose with the least trouble", and "controls men in the manner best adapted to their inclinations and desires." Montesquieu lived in England from 1729 to 1731 and greatly admired the English political system. Being a lawyer and student of constitutional government, Montesquieu summed up his ideas in his book ‗L' Esprit Des Lois‘ (The Spirit of the Laws) published in 1748. Montesquieu's aim in ―The Spirit of the Laws‖ is to explain- human laws and social institutions. Montesquieu believed that all things were made up of rules or laws that never changed. He set out to study these laws scientifically with the hope that knowledge of the laws of government would reduce the problems of society and improve human life.  20 According to Montesquieu, there were three types of government: a monarchy (ruled by a king or queen), a republic (ruled by an elected leader), and a despotism (ruled by a dictator). Montesquieu believed that a government that was elected by the people was the best form of government. He did, however, believe that the success of a democracy - a government in which the people have the power - depended upon maintaining the right balance of power. Montesquieu argued that the best government would be one in which power was balanced among three groups of officials. He thought England - which divided power between the king (who enforced laws), Parliament (which made laws), and the judges of the English courts (who interpreted laws) - was a good model of this. Montesquieu called the idea of dividing government power into three branches the "separation of powers." He thought it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different powers. That way, the government would avoid placing too much power with one individual or group of individuals. He wrote, "When the law making and law enforcement powers are united in the same person... there can be no liberty." According to Montesquieu, each branch of government could limit the power of the other two branches. Therefore, no branch of the government could threaten the freedom of the people. His ideas about separation of powers became the basis for the United States Constitution. ―Montesquieu advocated constitutionalism, the preservation of civil liberties, the abolition of slavery, gradualism, moderation, peace, internationalism, social and economic justice with due respect to national and local tradition. He believed in justice and the rule of law; detested all forms of extremism and fanaticism; put his faith in the balance of power and the division of authority as a weapon against despotic rule by individuals or groups or majorities; and approved of social equality, but not to the point which it threatened individual liberty; and out of liberty, not to the point where it threatened to disrupt orderly government.‖ Sir Isaiah Berlin. 2.2.4. Rousseau (1712-1778): Jean Jacques Rousseau has been considered as the Father of the French Revolution. His influence on the French society was much more than any other philosopher. In fact, it was Rousseau who provided the intellectual basis to the French Revolution. His greatest contribution to political philosophy was the famous book, ―The Social Contract‖. Rousseau was born at Geneva, Switzerland on 28 June 1712. His father was a watchmaker. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his upbringing was haphazard. At the age of 16 Rousseau  21 started a life of a wanderer. During this period he came into contact with Louise de Warens in 1728 who became his patron and later his lover. She arranged for his trip to Turin, where he became an unenthusiastic Roman Catholic convert. After serving as a footman in a powerful family, he left Turin and spent most of the next dozen years at Chambéry, Savoy, with his patron. In 1742 he went to Paris and came in contact with the circle of Denis Diderot, who was the editor of the Encyclopedia. Rousseau contributed articles on Music to the Encyclopedia. His autobiographical account Les Confessions (The Confessions) written in 1783 offer an insight into his turbulent life. In 1749, Rousseau won first prize in a contest, held by the Academy of Dijon, on the question: ―Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the corruption or to the improvement of human conduct?‖ Rousseau took the negative stand, contending that humanity was good by nature and had been fully corrupted by civilization. Rousseau contended that man is essentially good, a "noble savage" when in the "state of nature" (the state of all the other animals, and the condition man was in before the creation of civilization and society), and that good people are made unhappy and corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as "artificial" and "corrupt" and that the furthering of society results in the continuing unhappiness of man. Rousseau‘s essay made him both famous and controversial. Although it is still widely believed that all of Rousseau‘s philosophy was based on his call for a return to nature, this view is an oversimplification, caused by the excessive importance attached to this first essay. In a second philosophical essay, ―Discourse on the Arts and Sciences‖ (1750), Rousseau argued that the advancement of art and science had not been beneficial to mankind. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful, and crushed individual liberty. He concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of sincere friendship, replacing it with jealousy, fear and suspicion. ―The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality‖ (1755) is one of Rousseau‘s most mature and daring philosophical productions. In this revolutionary piece of writing, Rousseau maintains that every variety of injustice found in human society is an artificial result of the control exercised by defective political and intellectual influences over the healthy natural impulses of otherwise noble savages. After its publication, Rousseau returned to Geneva, reverted to Protestantism in order to regain his citizenship, and returned to Paris with the title ―Citizen of Geneva.‖  22 The alternative to his philosophical thought expressed in ―The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality‖ was his monumental work ‗‖On the Social Contract‖ written in 1762. Rousseau's Social Contract Theory laid down a new scheme of social organization. Rousseau believed that 'man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains.' He argued that all human beings have certain natural rights and liberties. These are, right to life, liberty and property. Rousseau further emphasized that human beings no longer owed obedience to any government that failed to protect these rights and liberties. He was the first philosopher to promote the concept of popular sovereignty. He justified the right of people to revolt against a tyrannical government. Rousseau believed in the establishment of an ideal state with a just society in which individual citizens would put his person and his power under the direction of the general will, i.e., the law. The three great ideals of the French Revolution "liberty, equality and fraternity‖ are found in Rousseau's ―Social Contract‖. Besides the above philosophical works, Rousseau also wrote a number of books and pamphlets on various subjects during his stay in Switzerland, Luxemburg, England and France. The most important among them are: ―Discourse on Political Economy‖ (1755) ―The New Heloise‖ (1761), ―Emile‖ (1762), ―Constitutional Program for Corsica‖ (1765), and ―Considerations on the Government of Poland‖ (1772). Although the authorities made every effort to suppress Rousseau's writings, the ideas they expressed, along with those of Locke, were of great influence during the French Revolution. Rousseau was one of the first modern writers to seriously attack the institution of private property, and therefore is considered a forebear of modern socialism and Communism. Rousseau also questioned the assumption that the will of the majority is always correct. He argued that the goal of government should be to secure freedom, equality, and justice for all within the state, regardless of the will of the majority. One of the primary principles of Rousseau‘s political philosophy is that politics and morality should not be separated. When a state fails to act in a moral fashion, it ceases to function in the proper manner and ceases to exert genuine authority over the individual. The second important principle is freedom, which the state is created to preserve. 2.2.5. Denis Diderot (1713-1784): Diderot was a French philosopher, and man of letters, the chief editor of the Encyclopedia, one of the principal literary monuments of the Age of  23 Enlightenment. The work took 26 years of Diderot's life. In seventeen volumes of text and eleven of illustrations, it presented the achievements of human learning in a single work. Besides offering a summary of information on all theoretical knowledge, it also challenged the authority of the Catholic Church. Denis Diderot was born at Langres as the son of a successful cutler. He was first educated by the Jesuits. During this period he read and studies books of all kinds - his favorites were such classics as Horace and Homer. In 1732 Diderot received the Master of Arts degree from the University of Paris. His father expected him to study medicine or law, but Diderot spent his time with books. In order to earn his living Diderot worked for an Attorney, Clement de Ris, as a tutor and freelance writer. Diderot gained first notice in the 1740s as a translator of English books. Diderot wrote an article ―Letter on the Blind‖ in which he questioned the existence of God, for which he was imprisoned for three months for his opinions. In 1745 Diderot became the editor of the Encyclopedia with mathematician Jean Le Rond d' Alembert, who resigned later because he believed that mathematics was a more fundamental science than biology. Diderot enlarged its scope and made it an organ for radical and revolutionary opinions. The Encyclopedia was published between 1751 and 1772 in 17 volumes of text and 11 volumes of engravings. The Encyclopedia included a number of ideas of great French philosophers such as Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. Besides providing latest knowledge, the Encyclopedia exposed the miserable conditions in which the country had fallen. It exposed a society based on inequality, injustice, exploitation and slavery and promoted revolutionary ideas. 2.2.6. The Physiocrats: The Physiocrats were the eighteenth century economists and social philosophers. The School of Physiocrats was founded by French economist Francois Quesnay. Factors responsible for the rise of the School of Physiocrats were numerous. They included the growing importance of agriculture in France, the disappointing results of the economic theory of mercantilism, the poor state of the French finance after the Seven Years War (1756-63), and the upsurge of liberalism in political and social thought. The Physiocrats held that the economy was subject to the rule of natural laws and that government should not interfere with the operation of the natural economic order. They advocated economic liberalism, freedom of trade, free competition, and the abolition of all special privileges. They were strong defenders of the rights to hold property, especially land.  24 Besides Francois Quesnay other leading figures among the Physiocrats were Gournay, Mirabeau and Turgot. Quesnay explained his views in his famous book ―Tableau Economique‖ (1758). As the son of a prosperous agriculturist, Quesnay strongly emphasized the position of agriculture. In his opinion, the land is the sole source of wealth and only that mass of agricultural and mineral products which is not consumed in the process of production should be taxed. He took his stand on the maxim, ―Poor peasant, poor kingdom, poor kingdom, poor monarch‖. According to the Physiocrats the society is divided into three groups: farmers, landowners, and all others. The farmers were assumed to be fully productive. The landowners were considered partially productive because they cooperated with the farmers in the use and improvement of land. However, the Physiocrats held that the members of the third groups, which included people associated with trade and industry, were entirely unproductive. Quesnay and his followers also stressed the importance of free competition in creating a healthy economy and establishing good prices in agriculture. They favored little government interference in the natural law in economics. That is, they were in favour of Laissez Faire. They maintained that the governmental activities should be limited to the protection of person and property. The Physiocrats advocated the abolition of all indirect taxes and the imposition of a single tax on the net income from land. Questions 1. Examine the intellectual background of the French Revolution of 1789. 2. How far were the French philosophers responsible for the Revolution of 1789? 3. Discuss the contribution of Voltaire and Montesquieu to the outbreak of the Revolution of 1789 in France. 4. Review the role of Montesquieu and Rousseau in preparing the intellectual background of the French Revolution of 1789. 5. Write short notes on the following: (a) Voltaire (b) Montesquieu (c) Rousseau (d) Encylopedists (e) Physiocrats   25 3 FRENCH REVOLUTION-III WORK OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-91) AND LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-92) 3. A WORK OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLY (1789-91) Objectives: 1. To understand the problems faced by the National Assembly (1789-91) and the Legislative Assembly (1791-92). 2. To study the various achievements of the National and Legislative Assemblies. 3. A.1. Introduction: When Louis XVI could not solve the problem of financial crisis he abolished all the parlements in a general restructuring of the judiciary. Public response to the actions of the king was strong and even violent. People began to ignore royal edicts and assault royal officials. Pamphlets denouncing despotism began to flood the country. At the same time, people began to demand for an immediate meeting of the Estates-General to deal with the crisis. The Estates-General was a consultative assembly composed of representatives from the three French estates, or legally defined social classes: clergy, nobility, and commoners. It had last been convened in 1614. Under increasing political pressure and faced with the total collapse of its finances Louis XVI reluctantly agreed to convene the Estates General. The king hoped that the Estates General might pull the state out of the deplorable situation and that it might help in replenishing the empty treasury. Within a short period the Estates General was converted into the National Assembly, which also came to be known as the Constituent Assembly. 3. A.2. Cahiers: During the early months of 1789, the three estates prepared for the coming meeting by selecting deputies and drawing up cahiers des doléances (lists of grievances). These lists reflected overwhelming agreement in favor of limiting the power of the king and his administrators through a constitution and establishing a permanent legislative assembly. The cahiers also suggested improvements in prison and hospital conditions and for reforms in economic, religious and political matters.  26 3. A.3. Composition of the Estates General: The Estates General met at Versailles on 5th May 1789. It constituted of 285 nobles, 308, clergy and 621 representatives of the third estate elected by all men of 25 years and above whose names appeared in the tax registry. Previously, each of the three estates had an equal number of delegates and each estate used to meet separately. It was a three chambered body with two of the chambers consisting of entirely of the privileged classes. Each estate had one vote for deciding any issue. In this way the privileged classes used to combine to outvote the third estate, which constituted more than 90 percent of the population. 3. A.4. Setting up of the National (Constituent) Assembly: Being aware of its strength, the third Estate demanded that each deputy should cast one vote in a single chamber composed of all three estates. This method would give each estate a number of votes that more accurately represented its population and would make it more difficult for the first two estates to routinely outvote the third estate. However, the clergy and nobility were opposed to this demand of the third Estate. The deadlock continued. Five wasted weeks later, the third estate finally took the initiative by inviting the clergy and nobility to join them in a single-chambered legislature where the voting would be by head. Some individual members of the other estates joined the third Estate and on 17th June 1789, they together proclaimed themselves to be the National Assembly (also later called the Constituent Assembly). 3. A.5. The Tennis Court Oath: When the members of the newly formed National Assembly went to their usual meeting place on 20th June 1789, they found the entrance of the hall was blocked by soldiers. As the members of the National Assembly felt that their initiative was about to be crushed they regrouped at a nearby indoor tennis court on 20th June 1789 and swore not to disband until France had a constitution. This pledge became known as the ‗Tennis Court Oath‘. 3. A.6. Recognition of the National Assembly by the King: On 23rd June 1789, Louis XVI proposed major changes in the financial system. He also agreed to seek the consent of the deputies for all new loans and taxes, and proposed other important reforms. However, he still refused to recognize the transformation of the Estates-General into the National Assembly and insisted upon voting by estate. Moreover, he tried to intimidate the deputies by surrounding the meeting hall with a large number of soldiers. Faced with strong resistance by the third Estate and increasing willingness of deputies from the clergy and nobility to join the third estate in the National Assembly, the king had no other option but to agree to a vote by head on 27th June 1789.  27 3. A.7. Attempt to Suppress the National Assembly: A second attempt was made by the king to suppress the National Assembly. Additional troops were brought into Paris and Versailles. On 11th July 1789, Necker, who had been brought back as the finance minister and who was in favour of reforms was not only dismissed but also was ordered to leave the country. These actions of Louis XVI were considered by the people as the clear signs that the king sought to undo the events of the previous weeks. 3. A.8. Storming of the Bastille: Dismissal of Necker, the most popular minister roused the people of Paris. The people in general feared that the king was determined to use force to suppress the National Assembly. Under these circumstances crowds began to roam Paris looking for arms to fight off a royal attack. On 14th July 1789 these crowds attacked the Bastille, a large fortress on the eastern edge of the city. They believed that it contained munitions and many prisoners of despotism, but in fact, the fortress had only seven prisoners at that time. The storming of the Bastille, the symbol of royal autocracy marked the beginning of the French Revolution of 1789. Faced with this insurrection, the monarchy backed down. The troops were withdrawn, and Necker was recalled. 3. A.9. Municipal Government in Paris: Following the fall of Bastille, the people of Paris spontaneously formed a Municipal Government superseding the old royal form of government. They also organized a new military force called the National Guard. In the country side the peasants revolted, plundered the castles of the nobles and destroyed the documents of the titles of the nobles. A large number of nobles were killed by the rebellious peasants. 3. A.10. Achievements of the National Assembly: On 9th July 1789 the National Assembly proclaimed itself as the Constituent Assembly. The members sat in a semi-circle around the President of the assembly who was elected every 15 days. Those sat to the right of the President were the ultra-royalists. Those who sat to the right of the centre were those who recommended a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary form of government like that of England. The members who sat to the left of the centre were led by Mirabeau. He advocated a constitutional monarchy. The members of the Constituent Assembly who sat to the extreme left of the President were those who wanted to carry out a programme of complete political, economic and social revolution in France along the lines visualized by Rousseau. They were in favour of democracy in a republican set up. Between 1789 and 1791, the Constituent Assembly introduced a number of reforms in political, administrative, social and economic  28 spheres. The chief reforms of the National (Constituent) Assembly were the following: 3. A.10.1. Abolition of Feudalism: The most important work of the National Assembly was the abolition of feudalism, serfdom and class privileges. In many parts of France the peasants had revolted against the feudal lords and had burnt their castles. In order to give effect to the aspirations of the people it was necessary for the National Assembly to legalize what the peasants had accomplished and to destroy feudalism throughout France. On 4th August 1789, a resolution was passed by the National Assembly that introduced equality of taxes. The nobles and the clergymen agreed to give up their privileges. Serfs were liberated and manorial courts were abolished. The clergymen gave tithes and other privileges. Sale of offices was discontinued. These measures were signed by the King. In one week the National Assembly accomplished what many ministers had attempted but failed to carry out for many years. Feudalism and three medieval social orders were abolished. Following these fundamental changes, the National Assembly next turned its attention to the creation of an individualistic society on the basis of liberty, equality and fraternity. 3. A.10.2. Declaration of the Rights of Man: The other great work of the National Assembly was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen adopted on 26th August 1789. The Declaration incorporated some of the principles of England‘s Bill of Rights and the American Declaration of Independence. It also reflected Rousseau‘s philosophy. According to the Declaration, ―men are born and remain free and equal in rights‖. The rights of man are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. The Declaration of the Rights of Man further laid down that law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally or through his representative in its formation. The law must be same for all. No person shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except according to the terms prescribed by law. The Declaration closed with the assertion that since private property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived of it except when public necessity, legally determined, clearly demanded and properly compensated. One French historian called the Declaration of the Rights of Man, ―the death certificate of the Ancient Regime‖. 3. A.10.3. Constitution of 1791: The National Assembly framed a new constitution for France. The constitution was completed in 1791 and was accepted by King Louis XVI. It was the first written constitution of France. It was based on the principle of separation of powers which was advocated by Montesquieu and was included in  29 the Constitution of the USA. The legislative, executive and judicial powers of the state were separated and vested in three separate organs of the state. According to the Constitution of 1791, the form of government in France was to be monarchical. However, the king was to be a constitutional monarch. He was to be the head of the executive. He had the power to appoint the chief officers of the army and ministers of the government. The Constitution of 1791 did not adopt the British Parliamentary system. The ministers did not have a seat in the legislative assembly and were not dependant on its support. The king had only a ‗suspensive veto‘ and not an ‗absolute veto‘, i.e., he could only delay the passing of any legislative measure or bill for a period of four years. The Constitution of 1791 assigned the legislative power to a single assembly comprising of 745 members elected for a period of two years, not by universal suffrage but by a tax paying electorate of little over four million. Only men who paid at least 50 livres in taxes and were landed proprietors could be candidates for election. The Legislative Assembly could initiate legislation and debate and vote upon bills before it. The judicial power was completely revolutionized. The judges were to be elected. Their term of office was to range from two to four years. The jury system was introduced for criminal cases and torture was abolished. 3. A.10.4. Division of France into Departments: The National Assembly drew up a uniform administrative system for France. For this purpose France was divided into 83 provinces or Departments of nearly uniform size. Each Department was divided into districts and each of these districts were further divided into cantons. The smallest unit of the administration was the rural municipality or commune The administrative system of France provided the basis for the creation of electoral units. In addition to participating in the elections, each active citizen was a member of the National Guard, which provided France with a system of local defence. Thus, France, from being a highly centralized state became one highly decentralized. Formerly, the central government was represented in each province by its own agent or office holder called ‗Intendant‘ and his subordinates. In the newly formed Departments the central government was to have no representatives. The electors were to choose the local departmental officials. It was the business of these officials to carry out the decrees of the central government.  30 3. A.10.5. Confiscation of the Church Property: To meet the financial problems, the National Assembly confiscated the church property which was valued at many hundred million dollars. With the church property as security, the National Assembly issued paper currency known as Assignates. However, the natural temptation of printing more paper currency could not be checked by the National Assembly. This led to inflation and increase in prices of various commodities. 3. A.10.6. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Another important work of the National Assembly was the civil constitution of the clergy. In November 1789, the church property was confiscated. In February 1790 the monasteries and other religious orders were suppressed. In April 1790 absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. In July 1790, the National Assembly enacted the civil constitution of the clergy. By this act the episcopal structure and the status of the clergy was overhauled. The number of dioceses was reduced from 134 to 83, one for each Department. The number of bishops and priests was also reduced. They were to be elected by the electors of the Department. The clergy were to receive salaries from the state. In this way the clergy effectively became the officials of the state. Further, the clergy was required to take an oath of loyalty to the revolutionary government and they were not to take the oath of loyalty to the Pope. Thus, the religious policy of the National Assembly led to a conflict between revolutionary France and Rome which was not resolved until Napoleon‘s Concordat of 1801. The clergy of France was divided in its reaction to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Majority of the bishops and clergymen refused to take an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Nearly one-third of the parish priests took the oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. They came to be known as the ―juring clergy‖ and those who refused were called the ―non- juring clergy.‖ 3. A.11. Flight of the King: When the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was presented to Louis XVI for his approval, the King remarked, ―I would rather be King of Metz than remain King of France in such a position, but this will end soon.‖ Humiliated by his loss of power, Louis XVI planned to escape from Paris. In the night of 20th June 1791, the King, Queen and other members of the royal family escaped from Tuileries in disguise. However, they were recognized and captured at the little village of Varennes not far from the frontier. They were brought back to Paris under humiliating circumstances. In spite of these developments the National Assembly continued its work. The powers of the King were drastically reduced following his  31 attempt to escape from France. By September 1791, the National Assembly completed the Constitution. Louis XVI had no other option but to accept the Constitution of 1791. The National Assembly, which also doubled as the Constituent Assembly got itself dissolved on 30th September 1791, after passing a decree that none of its members was to be elected to the new proposed Legislative Assembly. The work of the National Assembly had far reaching consequences on the political, social, financial, religious and legal systems of France. It destroyed the pillars of the ancient regime. It abolished feudalism, old form of government, old territorial divisions, the old financial system, the old judicial and legal system and the old ecclesiastical arrangements. 3. B. WORK THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (1791-92) Elections were held under the Constitution of 1791 and the new Legislative Assembly met on 1st October 1791. The Legislative Assembly consisted of 745 members. However, all of them were inexperienced young and new to the job. This was chiefly due to the fact that the National Assembly before its dissolution had passed a law debarring its members from being elected to the Legislative Assembly. 3. B.1. Political Groups in the Legislative Assembly: The Legislative Assembly was troubled by the rivalry of various political groups. The Constitutionalists were the supporters of the Constitution of 1791 and were in favour of a Constitutional Monarchy for France. They were prepared to accept the King with limited powers. The second political group was comprised of the Republicans who were further divided into two main groups-the Girondins and the Jacobins. The Girondins were moderates and stood for establishing a republican form of government. The Jacobins were republicans of extreme type. They were prepared to adopt all kinds of means for the establishment and safety of the republican form of government. Initially, the Girondins had a majority in the Legislative Assembly, but the influence of the Jacobins gradually began to increase. 3. B.2. Laws against the Clergy and the Émigrés: The Legislative Assembly passed two laws , which had far reaching consequences. By the first law, all priests were required to act according to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The second law dealt with those French nobles who had fled from France (émigrés) and were persuading the foreign governments to intervene on their behalf to crush the revolution in France. The law required them to  32 return to France by a fixed date. If they failed to return their properties were to be confiscated. Louis XVI did not approve both these laws and eventually vetoed both of them. This was exactly what the Girondins desired and had prepared for. By his refusal to sign these laws the King came to be looked upon as the enemy of the Revolution. The Girondins went further. They wished to make a traitor of the King himself and to do this a foreign war was necessary. Thus, the Girondins deliberately set themselves to provoke a foreign war. 3. B.3. Foreign Intervention: The intervention of the foreign powers in the internal affairs of France was becoming inevitable. The revolutionaries of France were determined to spread their ideas outside France as well. The cause of France became the ―cause of all peoples against all kings‖. Thus, the rulers of other European states were compelled wage a war against revolutionary France in order to crush the revolution. The émigré nobles were carrying on a propaganda war in other countries of Europe against Revolution in France. Under these circumstances there was a strong possibility of foreign intervention in France. 3. B.4. Declaration of Pillnitz: Earlier on 27th August 1791, the Austrian Emperor, Leopold II and the Prussian King, Frederick William had issued the Declaration of Pillnitz. In this declaration both the rulers had stressed that the cause of the French King was the cause of the kings of Europe and both Austria and Prussia were prepared to intervene in France if rulers of other countries joined hands with them. 3. B.5. Threat of a Foreign War: The threat of foreign intervention was resented by the people of France and this strengthened the resolve of the Girondins who were in favour of a war and thereby getting an opportunity to end the monarchy in France. Only the extreme Jacobins, who broke away from the Girondins, opposed a war. They were apprehensive that out of the war there would emerge either a regenerated monarchy or a dictatorship. With the exception of the ‗extreme Jacobins‘ under the leadership of Robespierre and Danton, all other parties began to prepare for a foreign war. 3. B.6. Revolutionary War: The foreign war was provoked by the French revolutionaries who sent an ultimatum concerning the émigrés to the Emperor of Austria, Francis II, through Louis XVI (Emperor Leopold II had died on 1st march 1792). Emperor Francis II was the nephew of Maie Antoinette. In reply to the ultimatum, the Austrian Emperor demanded the restoration of the German princes their feudal rights which had been abolished by the revolutionaries. As the stand off between Austria and Revolutionary France  33 continued, war was declared on 20th April 1792. The declaration of war was approved by all parties in the Legislative Assembly, only seven members voted against it. The revolutionary war that began in April 1792 lasted almost without a break until 1815 and gave a new direction to the entire course of European history. In France the war provided a new intensity to the revolutionary movement. The Girondin leaders were swept away from power and the Jacobins gained control. The Bourbon monarchy was overthrown and a new form of dictatorship was established in France. France was not thoroughly prepared for the war. The Girondins could not prosecute the war and the war progressed disastrously for France. It was a five months story of defeat, humiliation and invasion. The French army was disorganized due to lack of proper leadership and discipline. There was no unity in the command and confidence between the officers and men. A number of officers and soldiers deserted which further weakened the morale of the French army. 3. B.7. Rising of 20th June 1792: As the French armies were being driven back from the frontiers, civil war growing out of religious dissentions was threatening France with internal disorder. The Legislative Assembly facing these twin problems passed two decrees. One decree ordered the deportation of all non-juring priests to penal colonies. The other decree provided for an army of 20,000 men for the protection of Paris. Louis XVI vetoed both these measures. In order to pressurize the King to sign these decrees, the Jacobins organized a huge popular demonstration against the King. On 20th June 1792, a huge crowd marched to Tueleries, forced open the gates of the fort and entered the apartment of the royal family. For three hours the King stood before the crowd, but refused to give any commitment. Having subjected the King of France to bitter humiliation, the crowd finally withdrew without resorting to any violence. 3. B.8. Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick: The revolutionary movement in France began to gather momentum. Under these circumstances, the Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick, the Commander-in-chief of the Allied forces against France, published on 3rd August 1792, added fuel to the passions of the French revolutionaries. The manifesto was directed against not only the Jacobins but against all the patriotic Frenchmen. By this manifesto the Allies disclaimed intervention in the internal affairs of France, but they ordered the French people to restore Louis XVI to his full powers, to obey the orders of the invaders and not to resist or oppose Louis XVI or the Allies. The manifesto further declared that  34 National Guardsmen in arms would be treated as rebels, that the administrative officials and private citizens opposing the invading armies would be punished in accordance with the rules of war. If Paris and its inhabitants offered any insult or injury to the royal family or attacked the Tueleries, the Allied monarchs would seek memorable vengeance by giving up the city to military execution and total ruin. Though Louis XVI repudiated the manifesto, his words carried no weight. 3. B.9. Revolt of 10th August 1792: Following the publication of the Manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick, the Parisians staged a revolt on 10th August 1792. Louis XVI was suspected more than ever of being secretly supporting the invaders. The Municipal government of the Girondins in Paris was overthrown by the Jacobins who organized a new Municipal government. The Jacobins provoked the revolt of 10th August 1792 with an aim of overthrowing Louis XVI. At the end of the insurrection, the revolutionary commune of Paris under the Jacobin leader Danton forced the Legislative Assembly to carry out its recommendations. The Legislative Assembly suspended the King and provisionally dethroned him. This made it necessary to draft a new constitution as the Constitution of 1791 was monarchical. Thus, the Legislative Assembly decided to call a convention to take up the task of drafting a new constitution. 3. B.10. The September Massacre, 1792: The King and the Queen were imprisoned in the Temple, an old fortress in Paris. The Paris Commune also arrested a large number of suspected persons. This was followed the so called September Massacre. As the news of the advance of the Prussian and Austrian troops under the Duke of Brunswick reached Paris, there was panic. This critical situation was exploited by the violent elements of the Commune. Incited by Marat, one of the most fanatic and radical personalities of the time, from 2nd to 6th September 1792, the radical revolutionaries carried on a massacre of the political prisoners in Paris, who were suspected to be sympathetic to the royalist cause. Nearly 1,200 people were savagely put to death. 3. B.11. The Battle of Valmy: On 20th September 1792, the Allied forces were checked at Valmy. The Battle of Valmy took place between a combined Prussian and Austrian force led by the Duke of Brunswick and a French army. The allied invasion of France was halted, and a retreat was begun that soon turned into a rout. The French victory was a turning point in the wars of the French Revolution, which had begun five months earlier. The Battle of Valmy marked the first of many victories for the troops of revolutionary France. Thus, France was saved from the immediate danger of further advance by the Allied powers. The French victory in the Battle of Valmy restored self-confidence to the French forces.  35 While the revolutionary ministry of France was negotiating with the retreating Allied powers, the National Convention was constituted to face the internal and external dangers confronting France and to draft a new constitution for the country. Questions 1. Review the developments in revolutionary France between 1789 and 1791. 2. Discuss the chief achievements of the National Assembly (1789-91). 3. Describe the functioning of the Constituent Assembly (1789- 91) in France during the Revolution. 4. Outline the problems faced by the Legislative Assembly (1791-92). How was it successful in solving them? 5. Examine the working of the Legislative Assembly (1791-92) in France.   36 4 FRENCH REVOLUTION-IV WORK OF NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-95) AND DIRECTORY (1795-99) 4. A. THE NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) Objectives: 1. To analyze the problems faced by the National Convention (1792-95) and the Directory (1795-99). 2. To understand the work done by the National Convention and the Directory. 4. A.1. Introduction: The third revolutionary assembly of France was the National Convention. On 21st September 1792, the newly elected members of the National Convention held their first meeting. According to Prof. C.J. Hayes, ―Perhaps no legislative body in history has been called upon to solve such knotty problems as those which confronted the National Convention at the beginning of its session‖. 4. A.2. Problems faced by the National Convention: The National Convention had to decide the future of the deposed King. The country had to be saved from the foreign invasion; internal insurrection had to be brought under control; a government had to be established; social reforms were to be completed and consolidated; and a new constitution had to be framed for the country. In spite of these complex problems it goes to the credit of the National Convention that it accomplished these tasks successfully. 4. A.3. Struggle for Power: Foreign war and internal disturbances were the major challenges that the National Convention had to face. Under these circumstances there was a greater need for unity and determination. However, the National Convention was torn into frightening factionalism. The chief contenders for power in the National Convention were the Girondins and the Jacobins. Both these factions were devoted to republic. However, their differences were sharp on the issue of what part the city of Paris should play in the government. The Girondins represented the Departments (Provinces) and insisted that Paris, which constituted only one of the 83 Departments into which France was divided, should have only 1/83 of the influence. The Girondins argued that they would tolerate no dictatorship of the capital.  37 On the other hand, the Jacobins drew their strength from the capital, Paris. They considered Paris as the brain and heart of the country. The Girondins were anxious to observe the legal forms and processes. The Jacobins on the other hand were not so scrupulous. They were rude, active and indifferent to law. They believed in the application of force wherever and whenever necessary. The Girondins hated the three prominent leaders of the Jacobins-Robespierre, Danton and Marat. 4. A.4. Trial and Execution of Louis XVI: The contest between the Girondins and the Jacobins became sharper after the meeting of the National Convention. Louis XVI who was deposed earlier was put on trial. He was charged with plotting against the nation and attempting to overthrow the constitution. Following the trial, the King was unanimously found guilty of treason and was sentenced to immediate execution. While the Girondins pleaded for clemency, the Jacobins demanded his immediate death. Finally, Louis XVI was guillotined (executed) on Sunday, 21st January 1793. His last words were, ―Gentlemen, I am innocent of that of which I am accused. May my blood assure the happiness of the French‖. 4. A.5. Coalition against France: The immediate consequence of the execution of Louis XVI was an increase in the number of enemies of France. France was already at war with Austria and Prussia. Following the execution of the French King other countries such as England, Spain, Russia, Holland and some states of Germany and Italy also joined the coalition against France. Civil war also added to the problems of the National Convention as the peasants of Vendee rose against the republic in support of the non- juring priests. 4. A.6. The Committee of Public Safety: The National Convention decided to meet the challenge from both within and outside. It voted to raise 300,000 troops to meet the challenge of the coalition of powers against France. It created a Committee of Public Safety, to provide executive oversight, a Committee of General Security, to oversee the police and a Revolutionary Tribunal, to try political cases. These committees were intended to concentrate the full force of the nation on the problem of national defence and to eliminate the enemies of the Republic, whether foreign or domestic. 4. A.7. Insurrection against the Girondins: Meanwhile, the struggle for power between the Girondins and Jacobins took a worse turn. The Girondins wanted to punish those Jacobin leaders, especially Marat, who had been responsible for the ‗September Massacre‘ (1792). They also wished to punish the members of the Paris Commune for numerous illegal acts. In order to silence the Girondins, the Paris Commune, which supported the Jacobins organized an insurrection against the Girondins. The Tuileries,  38 where the Convention held its session was surrounded by the Parisian mob. The National Convention, thus became the prisoner of the Commune. The Commune demanded the expulsion of the Girondin leaders from the National Convention. Twenty-nine Girondin leaders were arrested and were later executed. The victory of the Commune was the victory of the Jacobins, who became the masters of the National Convention. The Girondins called upon the Departments to take up arms against the tyrannical Paris Commune. The Departments responded to the call of the Girondins. Around 60 out of 83 Departments participated in the movement against the Jacobins. 4. A.8. Efforts to Resist Foreign Invasion: Meanwhile, efforts were made to meet the danger of invasion by the foreign armies. To meet the needs of the war, a general call for troops was given and 750,000 men were enlisted in the army. Carnot, one of the members of the Committee of Public Safety rendered great service in organizing the armed forces by training and equipping the new recruits. These newly organized armies were sent in different direction against the foreign enemies of France. The French armies made superhuman efforts and were successful in many of the battles against the coalition forces. 4. A.9. Reign of Terror - Law of Suspects: While this great effort to resist the foreign invaders was going on, the Committee of Public Safety was engaged in a fierce campaign within France against all domestic enemies. By the Law of Suspects, any person of noble birth or who had held office before the Revolution or had any relation with an émigré or who could not produce a certificate of citizenship was liable to be executed. It was estimated that under this Law of Suspects about 5,000 persons were executed in Paris alone during the so called Reign of Terror. The Reign of Terror was let loose by the Committee of Public Safety, the first real executive to govern France since the overthrow of the monarchy. The Reign of Terror officially began with the institution of the Revolutionary Tribunal in March 1793. Although, initially the Reign of Terror was started in Paris soon it spread to the countryside. Local tribunals were set up to arrest and condemn suspected anti-revolutionaries. The deposed Queen Marie Antoinette also became a victim of the Reign of Terror and was executed through guillotine. The Reign of Terror came to an end when Danton and later Robespierre were sent to guillotine. As it happened, the coup against Robespierre and his associates was led by a group of dissident Jacobins, including members of the Committee of Public Safety. They had supported the Reign of Terror but feared Robespierre would turn on them next. On 27th July 17