Mammilian Class 1 Syllabus PDF

Syllabus There is a TA and a Tutor Have a Study Group MIDTERMS (20%) \- 4 midterms \- at 9:20- 10:20am \- One is dropped \- Comprehensive Final (30%) Attendance (10%) \- Squarecap Homework \- Pearson Online (part of the textbook) \- Homework due \@11:59 on Friday Chapter 1 Physiology d...

Syllabus There is a TA and a Tutor Have a Study Group MIDTERMS (20%) \- 4 midterms \- at 9:20- 10:20am \- One is dropped \- Comprehensive Final (30%) Attendance (10%) \- Squarecap Homework \- Pearson Online (part of the textbook) \- Homework due \@11:59 on Friday Chapter 1 Physiology defining \* TEST \- **physiology** is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts, including all its chemical and physical processes. What are BIOSHPERES? \- Is compose of everything is species and organisms What does this system consist of? SLIDE 14 - Physiology defined - Study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts  Rough ER- Protein Folding Smooth ER- Synthesis lipids Translational Process- \- ex: Ozempic a mechanic study used to provide treatment Mechanical Process \- Asking "how" Homeostasis- Maintain internal stability \- A constant dynamic steady state \- DOES NOT MEAN EQUILLIBRIUM Mass Balance **Input** Beathing in oxygen, keep everything constant = homeostatic -intestines \- lungs -skin **Excretion**- clears substance from the body \- kidney \- liver -lungs -skin TEST: - A 50-year-old man is given an intravenous (i.v.) infusion of glucose. The infusion solution is 50g/L. If given at 2ml per minute what is the infusion rate? ECF \- High Na ICF \- High K Control System- local and reflex \- Negative -Positive -Feedforward 01/27/2025 ========== HOMEOSTASIS SLIDE 48 video Biological Rhythm \- Circadian Rhythm Body Temperature \- Cortisol is a stress hormone. It peaks throughout the day. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Independent variable- X Axis Dependent Variable- Y-axis, Its what's changing  HUMAN EXPERIMENTS\ - Nocebo Effect \- Talk about the negative effects of the medicine -Placebo Effect \- Expected a Positive result and seen an effect Crossover Effect \- Cross over the medicine to see the real effects Blind Study \- Participant don't know what they are getting Double Blind \- Participants and administrative are both blind to the medicine given Longitudinal Study -Looks at the whole population Prospective study \- Meta Analysis \- PROBLEMS STUDY GUIDE: **Physiology Study Guide** **1. Introduction to Physiology** - **Physiology** -- Study of how living organisms function. - **Emergent Properties** -- Complex functions that arise from interactions of simple components. - **Levels of Organization** -- Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism → Population. - **Cell** -- Smallest unit of life. - **Tissues & Organs** -- Groups of cells working together for a function. - **10 Organ Systems** -- Integumentary, Musculoskeletal, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Immune, Circulatory, Nervous, Endocrine, Reproductive. **2. Function and Mechanism** - **Teleological vs. Mechanistic Approach** - *Teleological:* Why a process happens (e.g., \"The heart pumps blood to deliver oxygen\"). - *Mechanistic:* How a process happens (e.g., \"The heart contracts due to electrical signals\"). - **Translational Research** -- Applying research to medical treatments. **3. Themes in Physiology** - **Structure/Function Relationship** -- The shape of a structure determines its function (e.g., red blood cells are round for better oxygen transport). - **Compartmentalization** -- Separating functions (e.g., stomach acid vs. intestinal environment). - **Energy Use** -- The body requires energy for function. - **Information Flow** -- Signals control body functions (e.g., nervous system communication). **4. Homeostasis** - **Definition** -- Maintaining a stable internal environment. - **Regulated Variables** -- Temperature, pH, ion levels, oxygen, water balance. - **Failure of Homeostasis** -- Leads to disease (e.g., diabetes). - **Internal Environment = Extracellular Fluid** -- Surrounds cells for stability. - **Law of Mass Balance** -- Input = Output to maintain balance. - **Clearance** -- Rate at which substances are removed from the body. - **Dynamic Steady State** -- Internal conditions adjust but remain stable. **5. Control Systems in Physiology** - **Setpoints** -- Normal ranges for regulated variables. - **Local Control** -- Small-scale regulation (e.g., blood vessels dilating near muscles). - **Control System Components** - Input Signal → Integrating Center → Output Signal → Response. - **Response Loop** -- How the body detects and responds to changes. - **Negative Feedback** -- Response stops the original stimulus (e.g., sweating cools the body, then stops). - **Positive Feedback** -- Response increases the original stimulus (e.g., labor contractions). - **Feedforward Control** -- Anticipating changes before they occur (e.g., salivating before eating). - **Biological Rhythms** -- Cyclic body functions (e.g., circadian rhythms). **6. The Science of Physiology** - **Scientific Method** -- Observation → Hypothesis → Experiment → Data Analysis → Conclusion. - **Independent vs. Dependent Variable** -- - Independent: What is changed. - Dependent: What is measured. - **Control Groups** -- Used to ensure accuracy in experiments. - **Revising Theories** -- New data can change scientific understanding. - **Animal Experimentation** -- Used to control variability before human trials. - **Placebo & Nocebo Effect** -- Psychological influence of treatments. - **Blind & Double-Blind Studies** -- Reduce bias in experiments. - **Meta-Analysis** -- Combining multiple studies for broader conclusions. **CHAPTER 1\`** **1.1 Summarization** Physiology is the study of how living organisms function at molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, and system levels. It explains how different body parts work together to maintain homeostasis, the stable internal environment necessary for survival. The body uses **feedback mechanisms** to regulate physiological processes: - **Negative feedback** helps maintain stability by reversing a change (e.g., temperature regulation). - **Positive feedback** enhances a change until a specific outcome is reached (e.g., childbirth contractions). Physiologists use **the scientific method** to study body functions, conducting experiments to test hypotheses and develop medical advancements. **1.2 Flashcards** 1. **What is physiology?** - The study of how the body functions at different levels. 2. **Define homeostasis.** - The body\'s ability to maintain a stable internal environment. 3. **What is negative feedback?** - A control mechanism that counteracts changes to restore balance. 4. **Give an example of negative feedback.** - Regulation of body temperature (sweating when hot, shivering when cold). 5. **What is positive feedback?** - A control mechanism that amplifies changes instead of reversing them. 6. **Give an example of positive feedback.** - Oxytocin release during childbirth, which strengthens contractions. 7. **What is the role of the scientific method in physiology?** - It helps scientists conduct experiments and develop medical advancements. **1.3 Definitions & Medical Examples** - **Homeostasis** -- The body\'s ability to maintain stable conditions.\ **Example:** Blood glucose regulation through insulin and glucagon. - **Negative Feedback** -- A process that stabilizes a physiological function.\ **Example:** Blood pressure regulation by the nervous system. - **Positive Feedback** -- A mechanism that amplifies physiological responses.\ **Example:** Blood clotting after an injury to prevent excessive bleeding. - **Set Point** -- The ideal value for a physiological condition (e.g., normal body temperature of 98.6°F or 37°C).\ **Example:** Deviations from set points trigger regulatory mechanisms. - **Scientific Method** -- A systematic approach to experimentation and observation.\ **Example:** Clinical trials test new treatments for diseases like diabetes. **1.4 Study Guide Format** **Key Topics to Review** ✔ Definition of Physiology\ ✔ Homeostasis & Its Importance\ ✔ Negative vs. Positive Feedback\ ✔ Examples of Physiological Regulation\ ✔ The Scientific Method in Physiology CHAPTER 2 MOLECULES AND BONDS Lipids \- Fatty acid \- monosachharides -saturated (hydrogen all) -unsaturated(missing H) -poly (many) Glycerol \- Structure, backbone of most lipids \- More than 90% of lipids are In the form of triglycerids Eicosanoids (Make sure to spell) \- Thromoxanes= form thrombosis= blood clots Sterioids \- Lipids trimeans Prostaglandins- Cholestrol (Structure) \- building block for steroid hormones. Important for reproduction, testosterone, Sugars \- Sucrose -Lactose -Maltose Cellulose \- Humans Cant digest AMINO ACIDS \- Structure -left side (N) -- Right Side (Carboxyl Group) Bottom (R group) A table includes images that assist in describing the biochemistry of Amino acids. All amino acids have a carboxyl group, C O O H, an amino group, N H 2, and a hydrogen attached to the same carbon. The fourth bond of the carbon attaches to a variable R group. The nitrogen in the amino group makes proteins our major dietary source of nitrogen. The R groups differ in their size, shape, and ability to form hydrogen bonds or ions. Because of the different R groups, each amino acid reacts with other molecules in a unique way. In a peptide bond, the amino group of one amino acid joins the carboxyl group of the other, with the loss of water.  Elevated proteins of **Note:** A few amino acids do not occur in proteins but have important physiological functions. - **Homocysteine**: a sulfur-containing amino acid that in excess is associated with heart disease - ***γ**-***amino butyric acid** (gamma-amino butyric acid) or **GABA**: a chemical made by nerve cells - **Creatine**: a molecule that stores energy when it binds to a phosphate group STRUCTURE: Hemoglobin- (What kind of structure) A diagram shows quaternary structure of peptides and proteins. Multiple subunits combine with noncovalent bonds. Hemoglobin molecules are made from four globular protein subunits. The diagram shows a hemoglobin molecule structured with a network of different tightly coiled strands. LDL- Transport proteins Nucleotides  LOCATE bases, sugar, and phosphates NON COVALENT INTERACTIONS Solubility REMEMBER DEFINITIONS HERE: A list of solutions terminology. A solute is any substance that dissolves in a liquid. The degree to which a molecule is able to dissolve in a solvent is the molecule's solubility. The more easily a solute dissolves, the higher its solubility. A solvent is the liquid into which solutes dissolve. In biological solutions, water is the universal solvent. A solution is the combination of solutes dissolved in a solvent. The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute per unit volume of solution. Concentration equals solute amount divided by volume of solution. An accompanying image shows a spoonful of a powdery substance being added to a liquid in a beaker to form a solution. SOLUTION EXPRESSIONS OF SOLUTE AMOUNTS\ - PH \7 is alkalinic - The expression pH stands for "power of hydrogen." 01/29/2025 ========== PROTEIN INTERACTIONS Protein interactions are specific to which they bind with Induced fit for proteins and ligands AFFINITY- a degree to which a protein is attached to a ligand Ex: high affinity means it is very dynamic and it can attach easily Equilibrium binding is the exact equal to the rate of unbinding THE LAW OF MASS ACTION \- DISSOCIATION CONSTANT \- Kd is 1/Keq CONCEPT CHECK:14 A researcher is trying to design a drug to bind to a particular cell receptor protein. Candadite molecule A has a Kd of 4.9 for the receptor. MULTIPLE FACTORS AFFECT PROTEIN BINDING\ proteolytic activation: Protein is inactive until peptide fragens are removed ACTICATION: \- proteolytic activation -cofactors \- ions \- organic functional groups A diagram shows activation by allosteric activator. Part C. Allosteric activator is a modulator that binds to protein away from binding site and turns it on. In the third diagram, protein without the modulator is inactive. The modulator binds to protein away from binding site.\ A diagram shows activation by allosteric inhibitor. Part E. Allosteric inhibitor is a modulator that binds to protein away from binding sit and inactivates the binding sit. Protein without a modulator is active. The allosteric inhibitor binds to an active protein at a site separate from the binding site, and inactivates the binding site. Allosteric- away form the binding site - HOW CAN YOU CHANGE SOMEONS RESPONSE? - pH - The body regulates the amount of protein in cells - up-regulation *vs.* down-regulation - Reaction rate can reach a maximum - Concentration of ligand - Saturation -- maximum reaction rate ( ASK ABOUT THIS ) **Study Guide: Molecules and Bonds** **2.1 Molecules and Bonds** **Biomolecules and Their Roles** 1. **Four Major Biomolecules:** - **Carbohydrates** -- Provide energy (e.g., glucose, starch). - **Lipids** -- Store energy, make up membranes (e.g., fats, oils). - **Proteins** -- Structure, enzymes, signaling (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes). - **Nucleotides** -- Store genetic information, ATP for energy (e.g., DNA, RNA). 2. **Combination Molecules:** - **Glycoproteins** -- Proteins + carbohydrates (e.g., mucus proteins). - **Glycolipids** -- Lipids + carbohydrates (e.g., cell membranes). - **Lipoproteins** -- Lipids + proteins (e.g., cholesterol transport in blood). **Chemical Bonds and Molecular Interactions** 3. **Electrons:** - Essential for **bond formation, energy transfer, and free radicals** (unstable molecules that can damage cells). 4. **Types of Bonds:** - **Covalent Bonds** -- Atoms share electrons (e.g., H₂O, CO₂). - **Ionic Bonds** -- Transfer of electrons between atoms, creating charged ions (e.g., NaCl). - **Hydrogen Bonds** -- Weak attraction between polar molecules (e.g., water cohesion). - **Van der Waals Forces** -- Weakest bond, temporary attractions (e.g., geckos sticking to walls). 5. **Polarity and Ions:** - **Polar molecules** -- Unequal electron sharing (e.g., water). - **Nonpolar molecules** -- Equal electron sharing (e.g., oil). - **Ions** -- Charged atoms (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻). **2.2 Noncovalent Interactions** **Water and Solubility** 6. **Water = Universal Solvent** -- Dissolves most biological molecules. 7. **Solubility:** - **Hydrophilic** (water-loving) -- Easily dissolves in water (e.g., salt, sugar). - **Hydrophobic** (water-fearing) -- Does not dissolve in water (e.g., oil). **Molecular Shape & pH** 8. **Molecular Shape** -- Determines function (e.g., enzyme fit). 9. **pH and Hydrogen Ions:** - **More H⁺ → More acidic (low pH)** (e.g., stomach acid \~pH 2). - **Less H⁺ → More basic (high pH)** (e.g., blood \~pH 7.4). 10. **Buffers** -- Maintain pH stability (e.g., bicarbonate in blood). **2.3 Protein Interactions** **Protein Function** 11. **Protein Types:** - **Enzymes** -- Speed up reactions (e.g., amylase in saliva). - **Membrane Transporters** -- Move substances (e.g., sodium-potassium pump). - **Receptors** -- Bind signals (e.g., insulin receptor). - **Binding Proteins** -- Carry molecules (e.g., hemoglobin). **Protein Binding & Regulation** 12. **Ligand Binding:** - **Ligands** -- Molecules that bind to proteins. - **Binding Site** -- Where ligands attach. - **Affinity** -- Strength of ligand binding. 13. **Protein Activation & Inhibition:** - **Competitive Inhibitors** -- Block ligand binding (e.g., drugs). - **Allosteric Modulators** -- Bind elsewhere, changing function. 14. **Denaturation:** - Extreme **temperature or pH** disrupts protein shape (e.g., cooking an egg). **Example Questions & Answers** 1. **What are the four major biomolecules?** - Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleotides. 2. **What type of bond is formed when atoms share electrons?** - Covalent bond. 3. **What type of molecule does not dissolve in water?** - Hydrophobic molecules (e.g., oils). 4. **What determines a protein's function?** - Its shape and ability to bind to specific ligands. 5. **What is the difference between an ionic and covalent bond?** - Ionic bonds involve electron transfer; covalent bonds involve electron sharing. 6. **What happens if a protein is exposed to extreme heat?** - It denatures (loses its shape and function). **CHAPTER 2** **2.1 Summarization** **Molecular interactions are fundamental to physiological processes. Cells rely on biomolecules---proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids---to function properly. Water, ions, and pH balance play crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis.** **Key concepts include:** - **Chemical Bonds: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds influence molecular stability.** - **Biomolecules: Each type has a unique role in energy storage, structure, or information transfer.** - **pH & Buffers: The body\'s pH must stay within a narrow range (7.35--7.45) to prevent conditions like acidosis and alkalosis.** **2.2 Flashcards** 1. **What are the four major biomolecules?** - **Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids.** 2. **What is the primary function of proteins?** - **Structural support, enzymatic reactions, and communication.** 3. **Why is water essential for life?** - **It acts as a solvent, regulates temperature, and supports chemical reactions.** 4. **What is pH?** - **A measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.** 5. **What happens when blood pH drops below 7.35?** - **Acidosis, which can cause fatigue, confusion, and organ failure.** 6. **What happens when blood pH rises above 7.45?** - **Alkalosis, which can lead to muscle twitching and irregular heartbeat.** 7. **How do buffers help maintain pH balance?** - **They absorb excess H+ or OH- to prevent drastic pH changes.** **2.3 Definitions & Medical Examples** - **Proteins -- Large biomolecules made of amino acids, essential for structure and function.\ Example: Hemoglobin in red blood cells transports oxygen.** - **Lipids -- Fats and oils used for energy storage and membrane structure.\ Example: Cholesterol helps stabilize cell membranes.** - **Carbohydrates -- Sugars and starches that provide quick energy.\ Example: Glucose is the main energy source for cells.** - **Nucleic Acids -- DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information.\ Example: Mutations in DNA can lead to genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis.** - **Ionic Bonds -- Formed between charged atoms (ions).\ Example: Sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) form table salt (NaCl), essential for nerve function.** - **Covalent Bonds -- Strong bonds where atoms share electrons.\ Example: Water (H₂O) is held together by covalent bonds.** - **Hydrogen Bonds -- Weak bonds between molecules, crucial for biological structures.\ Example: DNA's double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds.** - **pH Regulation -- Maintaining the body\'s acid-base balance.\ Example: The bicarbonate buffer system prevents drastic blood pH changes.** **2.4 Study Guide Format** **Key Topics to Review** **✔ Major Biomolecules & Their Functions\ ✔ Types of Chemical Bonds (Ionic, Covalent, Hydrogen)\ ✔ Water's Role in Physiology\ ✔ pH Balance & Its Importance\ ✔ Examples of Molecular Interactions in Medicine** CHAPTER 3 A sac around our lungs- periplaura 3 Major cavities \- Cranial \- Thoracic \- Abdominopelvic Fluid filled compartments \- Circulatory system, \- eyes \- CSF \- Pleural and pericardial sacs  Hollow organs \- Heart -Lungs \- blood besseles \- intestines Lumen \- Interior or any hollow organ \- filled with air or fluid \- external environment ( two, gastrointestal , respiratory) Fluid compartments ECF- High in Sodium , Plasma, Intestinal fluid What is the high ion in plasma? Sodium ICF- High in Potassium Seperated by membrane s Pericardial sac- Pericardial membrane- each cell has a cellular membrane that has lipids, A table has 3 rows and 4 columns. The columns have the following headings from left to right. Membrane, Protein, Lipid, Carbohydrate. The row entries are as follows. Row 1. Membrane, Red blood cell membrane. Protein, 49 percent. Lipid, 43 percent. Carbohydrate, 8 percent. Row 2. Membrane, Myelin membrane around nerve cells. Protein, 18 percent. Lipid, 79 percent. Carbohydrate, 3 percent. Row 3. Membrane, Inner mitochondrial membrane. Protein, 76 percent. Lipid, 24 percent. Carbohydrate, 0 percent. EXAMM:  Glycoproteins- attached to the phospholipids heads Cytoskeletal protein- ALWAYS THE C -- TERMINUS (C- cytoplasm) HYDROPHOBIC BARRIER\ - Lipds \- Phospholipids \- Sphingolipids \- Cholesterol (little guys that re yellow between the tails in the image above) Phosphate Ions \- Bilayer \- Micelles important for lipid digestion naturally found in cells \- liposomes PROTEINS\ - Integral vs. peripheral \- Transmembrane \- lipid anchor A concept map of cell membrane components. The cell membrane consists of cholesterol, phospholipids, sphingolipids, carbohydrates and proteins. The cholesterol combines with the phospholipids to form a lipid bilayer which functions as a selective barrier between the cytosol and the external environment. The phospholipids and sphingolipids also combine with the carbohydrates to form glycolipids. The carbohydrates also link with the proteins to from glycoproteins. The glycolipids and glycoproteins bring structural stability, cell recognition and immune response to the membrane.  Sphingolipids- stick up above the membrane MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES\ - Glycocalyx \- found in the external surface of the cell INTRACELLULAR COMPARTMENTS\ Differentiation- selected genes are active to lead to specialized cell COMPARTMENTS \- Cell membrane e -Cytoplasm \- Cytosol \- Inclusions \- cytoskeleton \- organelles \- Nucleus Rac, Ro, CdQ Tau tangles- Alzheimer's Tau tangles are abnormal clumps of tau protein that form inside neurons in the brain. They are a primary biomarker of Alzheimer\'s disease.  MICROTUBLES ARE IMPORTANT FOR - Centrosome - Assembles tubulin monomers into microtubules - Centrioles - Direct DNA movement in cell division - Cilia (cilium) - Fluid movement across cells - Flagella (flagellum) - Cell (sperm) movement through fluid Ciliopoties- problem with cilia STUDY GUIDE:\ **Summarization of Key Points** **3.1 Functional Compartments of the Body** - The **cell** is the basic unit of life. - Major **body cavities**: cranial (brain), thoracic (heart & lungs), abdominopelvic (digestive & reproductive organs). - Some **hollow organ lumens** (e.g., intestines) are exposed to the external environment. - **Body fluids**: - **Intracellular fluid (ICF)** -- inside cells. - **Extracellular fluid (ECF)** -- outside cells, includes **interstitial fluid** (between cells) and **plasma** (in blood). **3.2 Biological Membranes** - **Membranes** can be cell membranes or tissue membranes. - The **cell membrane** regulates exchange, communication, and structural support. - **Fluid mosaic model**: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. - **Membrane components**: - **Lipids** -- phospholipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol. - **Proteins** -- transmembrane (embedded) & peripheral (surface). - **Carbohydrates** -- on extracellular surface for recognition. **3.3 Intracellular Compartments** - The **cytoplasm** consists of cytosol, inclusions (non-membranous structures), and organelles. - **Organelles & Functions**: - **Ribosomes** -- protein synthesis. - **Cytoskeleton** -- structure, transport, movement (includes actin, intermediate filaments, microtubules). - **Mitochondria** -- ATP production (cell energy). - **Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)** -- **smooth** (lipid synthesis), **rough** (protein synthesis). - **Golgi apparatus** -- packages proteins. - **Lysosomes & peroxisomes** -- digestion & detoxification. - **Nucleus** -- DNA storage & RNA production. **3.4 Tissues of the Body** - **Four tissue types**: epithelial, connective, muscle, neural. - **Extracellular matrix** supports cells and facilitates communication. - **Cell junctions**: - **Gap junctions** -- allow signals to pass. - **Tight junctions** -- prevent leakage. - **Anchoring junctions** -- provide mechanical strength. - **Epithelial tissue types**: - **Exchange** -- fast diffusion (lungs). - **Transporting** -- selective absorption (intestines). - **Ciliated** -- moves fluid (airways). - **Protective** -- prevents damage (skin). - **Secretory** -- produces substances (glands). - **Glands**: - **Exocrine** -- release through ducts (sweat). - **Endocrine** -- release hormones into blood. - **Connective tissue** types: loose (under skin), dense (tendons), adipose (fat), blood, cartilage, bone. - **Excitable tissues**: - **Muscle** -- contracts for movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth). - **Neural** -- transmits electrical signals (neurons & glial cells). **3.5 Tissue Remodeling** - **Cell death**: - **Necrosis** -- uncontrolled, damages other cells. - **Apoptosis** -- programmed, does not harm nearby cells. - **Stem cells**: can divide & differentiate into specialized cells. **3.6 Organs** - **Organs** are made of multiple tissue types working together (e.g., skin = mostly connective tissue). Now, I'll generate **flashcards** for studying! 🎯 **Flashcards for Study** **3.1 Functional Compartments of the Body** 1️⃣ **Q:** What is the basic unit of life?\ **A:** The cell. 2️⃣ **Q:** What are the major body cavities?\ **A:** Cranial, thoracic, and abdominopelvic. 3️⃣ **Q:** What are the two main body fluid compartments?\ **A:** Intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). 4️⃣ **Q:** What are the two types of extracellular fluid?\ **A:** Plasma (in blood) and interstitial fluid (surrounding cells). **3.2 Biological Membranes** 5️⃣ **Q:** What is the function of the cell membrane?\ **A:** It acts as a barrier, regulates exchange, and provides structural support. 6️⃣ **Q:** What is the fluid mosaic model?\ **A:** A phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. 7️⃣ **Q:** What are the three main membrane lipids?\ **A:** Phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol. 8️⃣ **Q:** What is the role of carbohydrates in the cell membrane?\ **A:** Cell recognition and communication. **3.3 Intracellular Compartments** 9️⃣ **Q:** What is the cytoplasm composed of?\ **A:** Cytosol, inclusions, and organelles. 🔟 **Q:** What organelle is responsible for ATP production?\ **A:** Mitochondria. 1️⃣1️⃣ **Q:** What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?\ **A:** Smooth ER (lipid synthesis) and rough ER (protein synthesis). 1️⃣2️⃣ **Q:** What organelle packages and ships proteins?\ **A:** Golgi apparatus. 1️⃣3️⃣ **Q:** What are the three sizes of cytoskeletal fibers?\ **A:** Actin (microfilaments), intermediate filaments, and microtubules. **3.4 Tissues of the Body** 1️⃣4️⃣ **Q:** What are the four main types of tissue?\ **A:** Epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural. 1️⃣5️⃣ **Q:** What are the three types of cell junctions?\ **A:** Gap junctions (signals), tight junctions (barrier), and anchoring junctions (strength). 1️⃣6️⃣ **Q:** What are the five functional types of epithelial tissue?\ **A:** Exchange, transporting, ciliated, protective, and secretory. 1️⃣7️⃣ **Q:** What type of gland releases hormones into the blood?\ **A:** Endocrine gland. 1️⃣8️⃣ **Q:** What are the three types of muscle tissue?\ **A:** Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. **3.5 Tissue Remodeling & 3.6 Organs** 1️⃣9️⃣ **Q:** What are the two types of cell death?\ **A:** Necrosis (damaging) and apoptosis (programmed). 2️⃣0️⃣ **Q:** What is a stem cell?\ **A:** A cell that can self-renew and differentiate into specialized cells. 2️⃣1️⃣ **Q:** What is an organ?\ **A:** A group of tissues working together for a function. Now, I'll provide **definitions with medical examples!** 🏥💡 **Definitions & Medical Examples** **3.1 Functional Compartments of the Body** - **Intracellular Fluid (ICF)** -- Fluid inside cells, making up \~67% of body water. - 🏥 **Example:** In dehydration, ICF volume decreases, causing cell shrinkage. - **Extracellular Fluid (ECF)** -- Fluid outside cells, including interstitial fluid and plasma. - 🏥 **Example:** Edema (swelling) occurs when excess fluid accumulates in the ECF. **3.2 Biological Membranes** - **Cell Membrane** -- A lipid bilayer controlling exchange and communication. - 🏥 **Example:** In cystic fibrosis, defective membrane proteins cause thick mucus buildup. - **Transmembrane Proteins** -- Proteins spanning the bilayer, allowing transport and signaling. - 🏥 **Example:** Insulin receptors help regulate blood sugar by allowing glucose uptake. **3.3 Intracellular Compartments** - **Mitochondria** -- Organelles generating ATP (energy). - 🏥 **Example:** Mitochondrial disorders cause muscle weakness due to low energy production. - **Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)** -- Site of protein synthesis. - 🏥 **Example:** In liver disease, RER dysfunction affects blood clotting proteins. - **Golgi Apparatus** -- Packages proteins for secretion. - 🏥 **Example:** In some genetic disorders, faulty Golgi function leads to misfolded proteins. **3.4 Tissues of the Body** - **Epithelial Tissue** -- Covers surfaces and regulates material exchange. - 🏥 **Example:** In psoriasis, excessive epithelial cell growth leads to skin scaling. - **Connective Tissue** -- Provides structure and support. - 🏥 **Example:** Osteoporosis weakens bone connective tissue due to calcium loss. - **Muscle Tissue** -- Enables movement. - 🏥 **Example:** In muscular dystrophy, muscle fibers deteriorate, causing weakness. - **Neural Tissue** -- Transmits electrical and chemical signals. - 🏥 **Example:** Multiple sclerosis damages neural tissue, affecting movement and coordination. **3.5 Tissue Remodeling & 3.6 Organs** - **Apoptosis** -- Programmed cell death maintaining tissue health. - 🏥 **Example:** Faulty apoptosis in cancer allows uncontrolled cell growth. - **Stem Cells** -- Undifferentiated cells that can specialize. - 🏥 **Example:** Bone marrow transplants use stem cells to regenerate blood cells in leukemia patients. CONTINUATION 02/03/2025 ========== TEST QUESTIONS:\ \ BASES\ 5% solution and saline SLIDE 31 Motor Protein Mitochondria \- has its own DNA, doesn't synthesis all of its protein. Mitochondria only from mom is given to fetus. Cholesterol = Steroids Golgi Apparatus- packaging of proteins Lysosomes- break down bacteria and old organelles Peroxisomes- break down fatty acids and toxic materials Three diagrams show organelles in cells. The first diagram shows mitochondria, which are spherical to elliptical organelles with a double wall that creates two separate compartments within the organelle. The inner matrix is surrounded by a membrane that folds into leaflets called cristae. The intermembrane space, which lies between the two membranes, plays an important role in A T P production. The outer membrane encases the entire organelle. Mitochondria are the site of most A T P synthesis in the cell. The second diagram shows Golgi apparatus and their vesicles. The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of hollow curved sacs called cisternae stacked on top of one another and surrounded by vesicles. The Golgi apparatus participates in protein modification and packaging. The third diagram shows an ectoplasmic reticulum and their ribosomes. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of interconnected membrane tubes that are a continuation of the outer nuclear membrane. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has a granular appearance due to rows of ribosomes dotting its cytoplasmic surface. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and appears as smooth membrane tubes. The rough E R is the main site of protein synthesis. The ribosomes are protrusions on the surface of the reticulum. The smooth E R synthesizes lipids and, in some cells, concentrates and stores calcium ions.  Nucleus \- 2 membrane with pores Pore complexes \- communication between nucleus and cytosol Nucleoli \- synthesis of ribosomal RNA \- Nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by a double-membrane nuclear envelope. Both membranes of the envelope are pierced here and there by pores to allow communication with the cytoplasm. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope connects to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. In cells that are not dividing, the nucleus appears filled with randomly scattered granular material composed of D N A and proteins. Usually a nucleus also contains from one to four larger dark-staining bodies of D N A, R N A, and protein called nucleoli.  TISSUES OF THE BODY Extracellular matrix \- synthesized and secreted by the cell Proteoglycans \- Glycoproteins Insoluabel proteins \- collagen \- fibronectin \- laminin Integrins; integrate and bond collagen and laminin Cell junctions CAMS- membrane spanning proteins, cell adhesion molecule Gap junctions: in Uterus and hearts Occluding junctions is Tight junctions Ex: found in the intestine Tight junctions formed by claudin Desmosomes Focal adhesions- they focus one place in the cell Selectins- A table has 4 rows and 2 columns. The columns have the following headings from left to right. Name, Examples. The row entries are as follows. Row 1. Name, Cadherins. Examples, Cell-cell junctions such as adherens junctions and desmosomes. Calcium dependent. Row 2. Name, Integrins. Examples, Primarily found in cell-matrix junctions. These also function in cell signaling. Row 3. Name, Immunoglobulin superfamily CAMs. Examples, NCAMs (nerve-cell adhesion molecules). Responsible for nerve cell growth during nervous system development. Row 4. Name, Selectins. Examples, Temporary cell-cell adhesions.  IMPORTANT ON EXAM A diagram of cell membrane Description automatically generated  ANCHORING JUNCTIOSN DISAPPEAR\ - cells metasizes (cancer ) \- MMP, Matrix mat TISSUE TYPES\ - Epithelial \- one or more layers of cells \- attached by basal lamina WHEN PEOPLE ARE SICK THEIR CLAUDINS AND CLAUDINS ARE IN THE BOOD STREAM Epithelial Tissue. Most epithelia attach to an underlying matrix layer called the basal lamina or basement membrane. The diagram shows epithelial cells attach to the basal lamina using cell adhesion molecules. Basal lamina, that is, the basement membrane, is an acellular matrix layer that is secreted by the epithelial cells. The underlying tissue lies below the basement membrane. STRUCTURE \- synthesize and secrete intestines Layers:simple and stratified Shapes: Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar  EXCHANGE EPITHELIUM \- in the heart and lung vessels are your **endothelium** allow for an exchange of substances TRANSPORTING EPITHELIUM\ - apical membrane: faces lumen \- basolateral membrane: faces ECM Ex: stretching the gastrointestinal \- Uses tight junctions A diagrammed representation of the transporting epithelium. Transporting epithelia selectively move substances between a lumen and the ECF. The basolateral membrane is a barrier between the lumen of an intestine or kidney and extracellular fluid. The upper part of membrane, the apical membrane is populated with microvilli. Tight junctions in a transporting epithelium prevent movement between adjacent cells. Substances must instead pass through the epithelial cell, crossing two phospholipid cell membranes as they do so. CILIA\ - move fluid and particles in the respiratory system and female reproductive tract \- prevents exchange \-  A diagrammed representation of the protective epithelium. A diagram shows cell layers in skin. Protective epithelia have many stacked layers of cells that are constantly being replaced. SECRETORY EPITHELIA\ - goblet cells are found in the intestines produce mucus \- exocrine glands: A diagram shows the development of endocrine and exocrine glands. During development, the region of epithelium destined to become glandular tissue divides downward into the underlying connective tissue. The epithelium is located above the connective tissue. A hollow center, or lumen, forms in exocrine glands, creating a duct that provides a passageway for secretions to move to the surface of the epithelium. The duct is surrounded by the exocrine secretory cells. Endocrine glands lose the connecting bridge of cells that links them to the parent epithelium. Their secretions go directly into the bloodstream. The connecting cells disappear into the connective tissue beneath the epithelium. A blood vessel runs through endocrine secretory cells located in the connective tissue. CONNECTIVE TISSUE\ - ground substance (matrix) \- made by fibroblast \- moble cells (blood)  Macrophages- fight invaders come from the tissue ( CELL SECTION VERY IMPORTANT ) A diagram of a blood cell Description automatically generated - Types of Connective Tissue - Loose connective tissues - Elastic tissues under skin - Provide support for small glands - Dense connective tissues - Irregular and regular - Provide strength or flexibility - Tendons -- skeltal muscles to bone - Ligaments -- bone to bone A photograph illustrates lose connective tissues. Loose connective tissue is very flexible, with multiple cell types and fibers. Collagen fibers are found in crossed patterns the tissue surface. Free macrophages are spots found close to the elastic fibers. Fibroblasts are cells that secrete matrix proteins. Ground substance is the matrix of loose connective tissue.