Major Communication Models PDF

 Major communication models There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories: 1. Linear models of communication --- They only look at one-way communication. The most prominent linear models of communication are: 1. Aristotle's communication model, ...

 Major communication models There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories: 1. Linear models of communication --- They only look at one-way communication. The most prominent linear models of communication are: 1. Aristotle's communication model,  2. Lasswell's communication model, 3. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and 4. Berlo's S-M-C-R communication model. 2. Interactive models of communication --- They analyze [two-way communication](https://pumble.com/blog/two-way-communication/). These are the following: 5. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and 6. The Westley and Maclean communication model. 3. Transactional models of communication --- They illustrate two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the communication event progresses. These include: 7. Barnlund's transactional communication model, and 8. Dance's Helical communication model.  Linear models of communication  The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers. **What is a linear model of communication? ** Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in **one direction**.  The main elements in these models are: - **The channel**,  - **The sender**, and  - **The receiver**.  Some linear models of communication also mention **noise** as one of the factors that have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background) element that usually distracts from the original message.  But, we'll talk more about the role of noise in the communication process later on. For now, let's start with the basic elements of the linear communication model.  As illustrated in the linear communication model diagram below, this communication model is pretty straightforward.  Linear communication model diagramLinear communication model diagram Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel.  The channel, as the medium, changes the message into speech, writing, or animation.  The message then finally reaches the receiver, who decodes it.  We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and now it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail. 1\. Aristotle's model of communication  The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle's model was designed to examine how to become a better and [more persuasive communicator](https://pumble.com/blog/persuasive-communication/).  **What is Aristotle's model of communication? ** Aristotle's model of communication primarily focuses on **the sender** (public speaker, professor, etc.) who passes on their message to **the receiver** (the audience). The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive. This makes Aristotle's communication model a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures.  **What are the main elements of Aristotle's communication model? ** Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model: 1. Ethos --- Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice. 2. Pathos --- Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.) 3. Logos --- Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting --- it needs to follow the rules of logic. As shown in Aristotle's communication model diagram below, Aristotle also suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to communicate:  - **Speaker**,** ** - **Speech**,** ** - **Occasion**,** ** - **Target audience**, and** ** - **Effect**.** ** Aristotle's communication model diagram Aristotle's communication model example Professor Hustvedt is giving a lecture on neurological disorders to her students.  She delivers her speech persuasively, in a manner that leaves her students mesmerized.  The professor is at the center of attention, whereas her audience --- her students --- are merely passive listeners. Nevertheless, her message influences them and makes them act accordingly.  So, in this situation, professor Hustvedt is **the speaker**, and her lecture on disorders is **the act of speech**.  **The occasion** in question is a university lecture, while the students are her **target audience**.  **The effect of her speech** is the students gaining knowledge on this subject matter. One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the feedback in communication because the audience is passive. 2\. Lasswell's model of communication  The next linear model on our list is Lasswell's Model of mass communication.  **What is Lasswell's model of communication? ** Lasswell's communication model views communication as the transmission of a message with the effect as the result.  The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message that is caused by the elements of communication.  If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.  **What are the main elements of Lasswell's communication model? ** Lasswell's model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:  1. Who created the message?  2. What did they say? 3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)? 4. To whom did they say it? 5. What effect did it have on the receiver? The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model: - **Communicator**, - **Message**, - **Medium**, - **Audience/Receiver**, and - **Effect**.**  ** If we take a look at Lasswell's communication model diagram below, we can get a better understanding of how these main components are organized. Lasswell\'s communication model diagramLasswell's communication model diagram Lasswell's communication model example Let's say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase salesman, Mr. Sanders.  He is promoting his brand of suitcases as the best. Aware that millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a remarkable impression.  By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.  So, in this instance, Mr. Sanders is **the communicator**.  **The message** he is conveying is the promotion of his brand of suitcases as the best.  **The medium** he uses is television. His **audience** consists of evening TV viewers in the US. **The effect** he is achieving by doing this is raising brand awareness and increasing sales revenue.  3\. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication  Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.  Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels are most effective for communicating.  So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well.  And, they were right.  **What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication? ** The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.  **What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model? ** As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main components of this model are: - **Sender**, - **Encoder**, - **Channel**, - **Decoder**, and - **Receiver**.** ** The Shannon-Weaver communication model diagram Interactive communication model diagramInteractive communication model diagram You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element --- **field of experience**.  The field of experience represents a person's culture, past experiences, and personal history.  All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication situations. We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication.  Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail. 5\. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication In their book [*Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications*](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/732671.Communication_Models_for_the_Study_of_Mass_Communications), Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model *"meant a clear break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication."*  **What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication? ** The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding.  As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, [[interpersonal communication]](https://pumble.com/blog/interpersonal-communication/), but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback. Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is **no difference between a sender and a receiver**. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that moment.  Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication* *model shows that information is of no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other people.  **What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according to this model? ** The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes **4 main principles** of communication:  1. Communication is circular. --- Individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders. 2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. --- Both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders. 3. The message requires interpretation. --- The information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood. 4. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:  - **Encoding**, - **Decoding**, and  - **Interpreting**.  The Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram The Osgood-Schramm communication model example Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call you, and you start updating each other about what happened during the time you have not seen each other.  In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and your communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other's messages.  In [*Information Theory and Mass Communication*](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/107769905503200201), Schramm even says:  "*It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great endless current of information*." 6\. The Westley and Maclean model of communication  The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model of communication.  This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication. **What is the Westley and Maclean communication model? ** The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication process *does not* start with the source/sender, but rather with **environmental factors**. This model also takes into account *the object of the orientation* (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.  The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with environmental factors that influence the speaker --- the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.   Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant. **What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model? ** This model consists of 9 crucial components:  1. Environment (X), 2. Sensory experience (X¹), 3. Source/Sender (A), 4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²), 5. Receiver (B), 6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³), 7. Feedback (F), 8. Gatekeepers (C), and  9. Opinion leaders. The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these components are organized in the communication process.  The Westley and Maclean communication model diagramThe Westley and Maclean communication model diagram The Westley and Maclean communication model example Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident.  This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late.  So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have witnessed.  Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication. --- Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let's look at all of them in greater detail. 9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean communication model As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment.  So, we will start with this element. Element \#1: Environment (X) According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a stimulus from the environment motivates a person to create and send a message.  Element \#2: Sensory experience (X¹) When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges them to send the message, then that sensory experience becomes an element of communication. In the example above, the sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident.  Element \#3: Source/Sender (A) Only now does the sender come into play. In the above-mentioned example, *you* are the sender, as well as a participant in the **interpersonal communication situation**.  However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In that case, we are talking about **mass communication**.  Element \#4: The object of the orientation of the source (X²) The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the source.  Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the **sender's beliefs or experiences**.  If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss (B).  Element \#5: Receiver (B) The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender.  In mass communication, a receiver is a person who watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc. When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a **person who listens to the message**.  In the example of a road accident, mentioned above, the receivers of the message are your friends and your boss.  Element \#6: The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³) The object of orientation of the receiver is the **receiver's beliefs or experiences**, which influence how the message is received.  For example, your friend (B) watching the news is worried about your safety (X³) after receiving the message.  Element \#7: Feedback (F) Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear.  As a matter of fact, **feedback influences how messages are sent**.  That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender.  After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back.  Let's go back to our example (about the road accident).  *So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best friend. * *You: "There was a terrible accident downtown!"* *Your friend: "My goodness! Are you hurt?"* *You: "No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn't involved! Don't worry!"* In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message and send it back to them.  Element \#8: Gatekeepers (C) This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal communication.  Gatekeepers are **editors of the messages** senders are trying to communicate to receivers.  For example, these are newspaper editors who edit the message before it reaches the readers.  Element \#9: Opinion leaders Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations.  Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an **environmental factor** (X) on the sender of the message (A).  These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers.  --- Now that we are familiar with interactive models, all we have left to analyze are the transactional communication models.  Free business communication tool Secure, real-time communication for professionals. FREE FOREVER UNLIMITED COMMUNICATION [[Learn more]](https://pumble.com/) [[Download]](https://pumble.com/apps)  Transactional communication models Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first introduce a new term for senders and receivers --- communicators.  **What is a transactional communication model? ** Transactional communication models view communication as **a transaction**, meaning that it is a cooperative process in which **communicators** co-create the process of communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.  In other words, communicators create **shared meaning in a dynamic process**. Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions.  In other words, communication helps us **establish our realities**. These models also introduced the roles of:  - Social,  - Relational, and  - Cultural contexts. Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are [[barriers to effective communication]](https://pumble.com/learn/communication/communication-barriers/) --- **noise**. **What are the main elements of transactional communication models? ** If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can identify the key components of this communication model: - **Encoding**, - **Decoding**,** ** - **Communicators**, - **The message**, - **The channel**, and ** ** - **Noise**. ** ** Transactional communication model diagramTransactional communication model diagram ---  We have already mentioned the most prominent transactional models of communication, and now it is time to thoroughly analyze them. 7\. Barnlund's transactional model of communication Barnlund's transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication. **What is Barnlund's transactional communication model? ** Barnlund's model of communication recognizes that communication is a **circular process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver,** both of whom can affect the message being sent.  The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback.  At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication's effect and effectiveness.  **What are the main elements of Barnlund's communication model? ** Barnlund's transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following main components of this communication model: - **Encoding**, - **Decoding**,** ** - **Communicators**, - **The message** (including the cues, environment, and noise), and - **The channel**. Barnlund's communication model diagram This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages.  So, Barnlund differentiates between: - **Public cues **(environmental cues), - **Private cues** (person's personal thoughts and background), and - **Behavioral cues** (person's behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).  All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each communicator's reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.  Barnlund's transactional communication model example Examples of Barnlund's Model of communication include: - Face-to-face interactions,  - [[Chat sessions]](https://pumble.com/blog/balance-work-communication-and-chit-chat/),  - Telephone conversations,  - [[Meetings]](https://pumble.com/blog/types-of-meetings/), etc.  Let's illustrate this model with an example from a [[business messaging app Pumble]](https://pumble.com/business-messaging-app).  An example that shows a misunderstanding due to the cultural differences in celebrating certain holidays (Pumble business messaging app)An example that shows a misunderstanding due to the cultural differences in celebrating certain holidays (Pumble business messaging app) [[Get started with Pumble]](https://pumble.com/register) Why was there a misunderstanding in this conversation even though everything seemed fine at first glance?  This misunderstanding has arisen due to cultural cues.  Namely, Catherine had thought that Irene wanted a day off on July 4th.  However, Irene comes from Canada and celebrates Independence Day on July 1st.  On that day, she does not show up at work to Catherine's bewilderment, because she has expected Irene to take a day off on July 4th, on US Independence Day.  So, due to cultural cues, there was a misunderstanding between them.  Still, this misunderstanding could have easily been avoided, had they cleared up the dates by providing each other with feedback.  8\. Dance's Helical model of communication  According to Dance's Helical model of communication, with every cycle of communication, we expand our circle.  Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because communication never repeats itself.  **What is Dance's Helical communication model? ** Dance's Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that gets more and more complex as communication progresses.  That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance's Helical communication model diagram below.  Dance's Helical communication model diagram In their book [*Communication: Principles for a Lifetime*](https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/376443.Communication), Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state:  *"Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange."* Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback we get from the other party involved influences our next statement and we become more knowledgeable with every new cycle.  Dance's Helical communication model example  Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their life.  Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary methods of communication.  For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers' attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words, and then in full sentences. During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.  Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication.  In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance's helix. Free business communication tool Secure, real-time communication for professionals. FREE FOREVER UNLIMITED COMMUNICATION [[Learn more]](https://pumble.com/) [[Download]](https://pumble.com/apps) A screenshot of a phone Description automatically generated Wrapping up: Communication models help us solve our workplace communication problems  Communication in real life might be too complex to be truly represented by communication models.  However, models of communication can still help us examine the steps in the process of communication, so we can better understand how we communicate both in the workplace and outside of it. Let's sum up the key takeaways from this guide. In this guide, we have covered the most important models of communication, divided into 3 categories: - **Linear models** --- Mainly used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with customers, these models view communication as a one-way process. - **Interactive models** --- Used in internet-based and mediated communication, they refer to two-way communication with indirect feedback. - **Transactional models** --- The most complex models of communication, which best reflect the communication process. Although none of these models represent our communication 100%, they can help us detect and solve potential problems and improve our communication skills. **References:** - Beebe, S. A., Beebe, S. J., & Ivy, D. K. (2022). *Communication: Principles for a lifetime*. Pearson Education Limited.  - Berlo, David K. (1960). *The Process of Communication*. Harcourt School.  - Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). *Models of communication*. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/communication/Models-of-communication - Fiske, J. (2011). *Introduction to communication studies*. Routledge. - Hartley, J. (2020). *Communication, cultural and Media Studies: The key concepts*. Routledge. - Iyer, N., Veenstra, A. S., & Sapienza, Z. (2015, January 1). *Reading Lasswell's model of communication backward: Three scholarly misconceptions*. Mass Communication and Society. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.academia.edu/13182400/Reading\_Lasswells\_Model\_of\_Communication\_Backward\_Three\_Scholarly\_Misconceptions - Jones, R. G. (2018). *Communication in the real world*. Flat World Knowledge. - Learning, L. (n.d.). *Principles of public speaking*. Principles of Public Speaking \| Simple Book Production. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/publicspeakingprinciples/ - McQuail, D. (2012). *McQuail's mass communication theory*. SAGE. - McQuail, D., & Windahl, S. (2016). *Communication models: For the study of Mass Communications*. Routledge. - *MSG Management  Study  Guide*. Communication Models -- Aristotle, Berlos, Shannon and Weaver, Schramms. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/communication-models.htm - Pierce, T., & Corey, A. M. (2009). *The evolution of human communication: From theory to practice*. EtrePress. - Schramm, W. (1955). *Information theory and mass... -- journals.sagepub.com*. SAGE Journals. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/107769905503200201