Cells & Tissues Anatomy & Physiology PDF

Cells & Tissues Anatomy & Physiology Cells & Tissues Functions of the Cell basic unit of life protection and support movement communication cell metabolism and energy release inheritance Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Cells areelit. adipiscing organi...

Cells & Tissues Anatomy & Physiology Cells & Tissues Functions of the Cell basic unit of life protection and support movement communication cell metabolism and energy release inheritance Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Cells areelit. adipiscing organized intocongue Maecenas porttitor three main regions: Nucleus Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Cells & Tissues Cell Processes Factors nutrition matter digestion energy absorption organization biosynthesis information respiration excretion secretion Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer response adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue reproduction Nucleus Control center of the cell* Contains genetic material (DNA)** LOREM IPSUM Three regions: Nuclear membrane – barrier of the DOLOR SIT AMET, nucleus, consists of a double phospholipid membrane and CONSECTETUER contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of material with the rest of ADIPISCING ELIT2 the cell Nucleolus – site of ribosome production, ribosomes then migrate Lorem ipsumcytoplasm to the dolor sit amet,through consectetuer nuclear poreselit. Maecenas porttitor congue adipiscing Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein and it condenses to form chromosomes when the cell divides*** Plasma Membrane Barrier for cell contents* LOREM IPSUM Also known as the cell membrane Gives strength, shape and DOLOR SIT AMET, protection to the cell Regulates traffic flow of materials CONSECTETUER between the interior of the cell and its environment ADIPISCING ELIT2 Double phospholipid layer**: Hydrophilic heads Hydrophobic tails Other Loremmaterials ipsum dolor sitinamet, the consectetuer plasma membrane: adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Protein Cholesterol Glycoproteins Plasma Membrane Membrane Specializations: Microvilli – finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption Membrane Junctions: Tight Lorem ipsumjunctions* dolor sit amet, consectetuer Desmosomes adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Gap junctions Cytoplasm LOREM IPSUM Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane* DOLOR SIT AMET, **Cytosol – fluid that suspends other elements and is the site CONSECTETUER of many metabolic pathways Organelles – metabolic ADIPISCING ELIT2 machinery of the cell which are membrane bound and have its own unique structure andipsum Lorem functions dolor sit amet, consectetuer Inclusions adipiscing – non-functioning elit. Maecenas porttitor congue units Cytoplasmic Organelles LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Cytoplasmic Organelles Ribosomes where proteins are produced free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles in the cytoplasm other ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic Reticulum series of membranes forming sacs Lorem and ipsum tubules dolor sit amet,that extends consectetuer from the adipiscing outer nuclear elit. Maecenas porttitor congue membrane into the cytoplasm rough and smooth ER* Cytoplasmic Organelles LOREM Golgi Apparatus IPSUM DOLOR consists SIT of closely membrane-bound sacs AMET, packed stacks of curved, collects, modifies, packages, and distributes CONSECTETUER proteins and lipids manufactured by ER* ADIPISCING Lysosomes ELIT2 membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer contain a variety adipiscing elit. Maecenasof enzymes porttitor conguethat function as intracellular digestive systems** Cytoplasmic Organelles LOREM IPSUM Peroxisomes small, membrane-bound vesicles DOLOR SIT AMET, containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen CONSECTETUER peroxide* ADIPISCING ELIT2 Mitochondria “Powerhouses” of the cell provides ATP for cellular energy** carry out aerobic Lorem ipsum respiration*** dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Cytoplasmic Organelles LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, Cytoskeleton consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place, CONSECTETUER and enable the cell to change shape ADIPISCING ELIT2 consists of: Microfilaments* Intermediate Lorem filaments ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Microtubules adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Cytoplasmic Organelles LOREM IPSUM Centrioles DOLOR Rod-shapedSIT AMET, bodies made of microtubules CONSECTETUER Direct formation of mitotic spindle during cell division ADIPISCING Cellular Projections ELIT2 Not found in all cells Usedipsum Lorem for dolor movement sit amet, consectetuer Cilia adipiscing elit.moves Maecenasmaterials across porttitor congue the cell surface Flagellum propels the cell Diversity of Cell Types LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Diversity of Cell Types LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Diversity of Cell Types LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Diversity of Cell Types LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Membrane Transport *Membrane Transport – movement of substances into and out of the cell LOREM IPSUM Transport is by two basic methods Passive Transport – no energy is required DOLOR SIT AMET, Active Transport – the cell must provide metabolic energy CONSECTETUER Solutions and Transport Solution – homogenous mixture of two or more components ADIPISCING ELIT2 Solvent – dissolving medium Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol Interstitial Lorem fluid ipsum dolor sit –amet, fluid on the exterior of the cell consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Selective Permeability The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others. The permeability includes movement into and out of the cell Passive Transport LOREM IPSUM Passive Transport – movement of a substance across a membrane without the direct expenditure of energy*. DOLOR Diffusion SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a ADIPISCING ELIT2 concentration gradient** Types of Diffusion: Simple Diffusion – unassisted process, solutes are lipid-soluble Loremmaterials oramet, ipsum dolor sit small enough to pass through membrane pores consectetuer Osmosis adipiscing – simple elit. Maecenas diffusion porttitor congue of water, highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane Facilitated Diffusion – substances require a protein carrier for passive transport Diffusion LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Simple and Facilitated Diffusion LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Osmosis LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Passive Transport Filtration LOREM IPSUM movement of fluid through a partition containing small holes DOLOR SIT AMET, fluid movement results from the pressure of weight of the fluid CONSECTETUER pushing against the partition fluid and substances small ADIPISCING ELIT2 enough to pass through the holes move through the partition, but substances larger than the holes do not Lorem pass ipsum through dolor it* sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Filtration LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Active Transport LOREM IPSUM Active Transport – transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion and the movement requires ATP expenditure* DOLOR SIT AMET, They may be too large They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane CONSECTETUER They may have to move against a concentration gradient Two common forms of active transport: ADIPISCING ELIT2 Solute Pumping Bulk Transport Solute Pumping Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Aminoelit. adipiscing acids, some Maecenas sugars porttitor and ions are transported by solute pumps congue ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves substances against concentration gradients Active Transport LOREM Bulk Transport* IPSUM DOLOR Exocytosis SIT AMET, Moves materials out of the cell carried in a membranous vesicle CONSECTETUER Vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane then combines with it until the material is emptied outside ADIPISCING Endocytosis ELIT2 Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vesicle Types Lorem of Endocytosis: ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Phagocytosis adipiscing – cell elit. Maecenas porttitor eating congue Pinocytosis – cell drinking Solute Pumping LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Exocytosis LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Phagocytosis LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Pinocytosis LOREM IPSUM DOLOR SIT AMET, CONSECTETUER ADIPISCING ELIT2 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Cell Division Cell Division the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell* during mitosis and meiosis, the DNA within the parent cell is distributed to the daughter cells** each cell of the human body, except for sex cells, contains 46 chromosomes*** Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Mitosis all cells of the body, except those that give rise to sex cells, divide by mitosis involves 2 steps genetic material within a cell is replicated, or duplicated, and the cell divides to form 2 daughter cells with the same amount and type of DNA as the parent cell* Interphase the period Lorem between ipsum dolor active cell divisions sit amet, consectetuer during which adipiscing the DNA elit. Maecenas is congue porttitor replicated** Mitosis* Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Mitosis Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Protein Synthesis LOREM IPSUM Protein Synthesis – is the process in which cells make proteins* DOLOR SIT AMET, Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein CONSECTETUER and specifies the structure of an RNA molecule ADIPISCING Gene Expression – isELIT2 the production of RNA and or proteins from the information stored in DNA. RNA is essential for protein synthesis** Proteins Lorem ipsumhave dolor sitmany functions: amet, consectetuer Building adipiscing materials elit. Maecenas for cells porttitor congue Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) Role of RNA LOREM IPSUM DOLOR Messenger RNASIT AMET, (mRNA) Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the CONSECTETUER ribosome ADIPISCING Transfer RNA (tRNA) ELIT2 Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Ribosomal adipiscing RNA (rRNA) elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built Protein Synthesis LOREM IPSUM DOLOR TranscriptionSIT AMET, Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the CONSECTETUER complementary base sequence of mRNA by an enzyme Occurs at the nucleus ADIPISCING Translation ELIT2 Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid Loremsequence ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Amino adipiscing acids are elit. Maecenas the congue porttitor building blocks of proteins Occurs at the cytoplasm Body Tissues LOREM IPSUM Cells are specialized for DOLOR SIT AMET, particular functions. CONSECTETUER Tissues Groups of cells with similar ADIPISCING ELIT2 structure and function* Four primary types**: Epithelial Tissue Connective Lorem ipsum Tissue dolor sit amet, consectetuer Muscle adipiscing Tissue elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Nervous Tissue Epithelial Tissue LOREM IPSUM Epithelial Tissue – covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body*. DOLOR SIT AMET, Cells are fit closely together Tissue layer always has one free surface CONSECTETUER The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane** Avascular – no blood supply*** ADIPISCING ELIT2 Regenerate easily if well nourished* Found in different areas: body coverings, body linings, and glandular tissue Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Functions**: adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion Epithelial Tissue LOREM IPSUM Epithelial Tissue Classifications DOLOR Number SIT of Cell AMET, Layers: Simple – one layer Stratified – more than one layer CONSECTETUER Shape of Cells: ADIPISCING ELIT2 Squamous – flattened Cuboidal – cube shaped Columnar Lorem – sit ipsum dolor column like amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Epithelial Tissue Types: Simple Epithelium D Stratified Epithelium Glandular Epithelium D Simple Epithelium 1. Simple Squamous Single layer of flat cells Usually forms membranes: lines body cavities; lines lungs and capillaries Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue D Simple Epithelium 2. Simple Cuboidal Single layer of cube-like cells Common in glands and their ducts Forms walls of kidney tubules Covers the ovaries D D Simple Epithelium 3. Simple Columnar Single layer of tall cells Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus Lines digestive tract D DD Simple Epithelium 4. Pseudostratified Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others Often looks like a double cell layer Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract: nasal cavity, Lorem ipsumnasal dolor sitsinuses, pharynx, amet, consectetuer trachea, adipiscing bronchiporttitor elit. Maecenas and auditory congue tubes D D Stratified Epithelium 1. Stratified Squamous Cells at the free edge are flattened Found as a protective covering where friction is common Locations: Lorem skin, ipsum dolor sit amet,mouth, consectetuer esophagus adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue D D Stratified Epithelium 2. Stratified Cuboidal Two layers of cuboidal cells Location: sweat gland ducts, D ovarian follicular cells and salivary gland ducts Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Basement Membrane D Stratified cuboidal Stratified Epithelium 3. Stratified Columnar D Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size D and shape Location: mammary gland ducts, larynx, portion of the Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer male urethra adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue D D Stratified D columnar Basement Membrane Stratified Epithelium 4. Transitional Epithelium Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching Lines organs of the urinary system: urinary bladder, ureters, superior urethra Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue D D D Glandular Epithelium Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product Two major gland types: 1. Endocrine gland Ductless Secretions are hormones 2. Exocrine gland Empty through ducts to the Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer epithelial surface adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Include sweat and oil glands Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Found everywhere in the body* Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues Variations in blood supply: some tissue types are well vascularized while some have poor blood supply or are avascular It consists of cells separated from each other by abundant extracellular matrix. Functions* Binds Lorem ipsumbody dolor sittissues together amet, consectetuer Supports adipiscing the body elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Provides protection Stores compounds Transporting substances Connective Tissue Extracellular matrix – non-living material that surrounds living cells* Two main elements: Ground substance – mostly water along with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules** Protein fibers – produced by the cells Three Lorem types: ipsum dolor sitcollagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers*** amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Extracellular Matrix Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Connective Tissue 1. Bone (Osseous Tissue) Composed of: bone cells in lacunae (cavities), hard matrix of calcium salts, large number of collagen fibers Used to protect and support the body Spongy bone: found at the interior bones of the skull, vertebrae, sternum, Lorem ipsum dolorand pelvis, sit amet, in the ends of consectetuer the long adipiscing bones*porttitor congue elit. Maecenas Compact bone: found at the outer portions of all bones, shafts of long bones** D Connective Tissue 2. Hyaline Cartilage Composed of: abundant collagen fibers and rubbery matrix Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage Most common cartilage located at growing long bones, cartilage rings of the respiratory system, costal Lorem ipsum cartilage dolor sit amet,of ribs, nasal consectetuer cartilages, adipiscing articulating elit. Maecenas surface of porttitor congue bones, embryonic skeleton D D Connective Tissue 3. Elastic Cartilage Provides elasticity Location at the external ears, epiglottis and auditory tubes* 4. Fibrocartilage Highly compressible Example: Lorem ipsum dolorforms cushion-like sit amet, consectetuer discs between adipiscing vertebrae, elit. Maecenas porttitorintervertebral congue disks, symphysis** DD D Connective Tissue 5. Dense Connective Tissue Main matrix element is collagen fibers running in somewhat the same direction Cells are fibroblasts Examples: tendon Lorem – attach ipsum dolor sit amet,muscle to bone, consectetuer ligaments adipiscing – attach elit. Maecenas bone porttitor to bone congue DDD D Connective Tissue 6. Areolar Connective Tissue Most widely distributed connective tissue: packing between glands, muscles, and nerves; also attached the skin to underlying tissues Soft, pliable tissue Contains Lorem allsitfiber ipsum dolor types amet, consectetuer Can elit. adipiscing soak up excess Maecenas porttitorfluid congue DDD D Connective Tissue 7. Blood Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix Fibers are visible during clotting Functions as the transport vehicle foripsum Lorem materials dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DDD D D Connective Tissue 8. Adipose Tissue Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules predominate Many cells contain large lipid deposits Insulates the body, protects some organs Lorem andsitserves ipsum dolor as a site of fuel amet, consectetuer storage adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DDD D D Connective Tissue 9. Reticular Connective Tissue Delicate network of interwoven fibers Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of lymphoid organs: lymph nodes, spleen, bone Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer marrow adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DD D D D D Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue – functions to produce movement Three types: Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Smooth Muscle adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DD D D D D Muscle Tissue 1. Skeletal Muscle Can be controlled voluntarily Cells attach to the bone or other connective tissue Cells are striated Cells have more than one Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer nucleus adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DDD D D D D Muscle Tissue 2. Cardiac Muscle Found only in the heart Function is to pump blood (involuntary) Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at Loremintercalated disks ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Cells are striated adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue One nucleus per cell DDD D D D D D Muscle Tissue 3. Smooth muscle Involuntary muscle Surrounds hollow organs such as the stomach and small intestines Attached to other smooth muscle cells No Lorem visible ipsum dolor striations sit amet, consectetuer Oneelit. adipiscing nucleus Maecenas per cell congue porttitor D D D D DDD D Nervous Tissue Nervous Tissue Neurons and nerve support cells found in the brain, spinal cord and ganglia Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body: Irritability Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer Conductivity adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue DDD D D D D Tissue Repair* Regeneration – replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells** Fibrosis – repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue) Determination of method: Type of tissue damaged Severity of the injury Events in Tissue Lorem ipsum dolor sitRepair amet, consectetuer 1.adipiscing Capillaries become elit. Maecenas very porttitor permeable congue Introduce clotting proteins Wall off injured area 2. Formation of granulation tissue (new tissue) 3. Regeneration of surface epithelium Tissue Repair Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Maecenas porttitor congue Tissue Regeneration Tissues that regenerate easily: Epithelial tissue Fibrous connective tissue and bone Tissues that regenerate poorly: Skeletal muscle Tissues that Lorem ipsum are dolor sitreplaced largely with scar tissue: amet, consectetuer Cardiac adipiscing muscleporttitor congue elit. Maecenas Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord