Luther and the German Reformation PDF

Luther and German Reformation 1 Why did Luther’s revolt start? The Trigger: the Ninety-five Theses  Legend has it that on the eve of All Saints' Day, 31 October 1517, he pinned the Ninety five Theses against the sale of indulgences...

Luther and German Reformation 1 Why did Luther’s revolt start? The Trigger: the Ninety-five Theses  Legend has it that on the eve of All Saints' Day, 31 October 1517, he pinned the Ninety five Theses against the sale of indulgences to the door of the main church in Wittenberg, the capital of electoral Saxony. Main Points of the 95 Theses: Criticism of the practice of selling indulgences  Because the theological rationale for them was dubious o That forgiveness was a free gift from God for the truly repentant, not to be purchased o That indulgences detracted from leading a good life and in fact encouraged people to continue to sin.  That clerics - preachers and sellers - of indulgences were wrong o felt innocent and simple people were being misled by Tetzel o implicit criticism of the Pope for allowing indulgences  Criticism of the Papacy as distant exploiting the German poor o An appeal to the interests of the exploited German faithful. o The poor could not afford these indulgences o Criticism of papal taxation There is evidence of Luther’s three challenges at the very beginning: Theological challenge Anticlerical challenge German Nationalistic challenge That indulgences alone are not a way to Attack on likes of Tetzel: thesis 21 “hence That the German people were being exploited ensure salvation: thesis 32 “all those who those preachers of Indulgences are wrong by a distant papacy: thesis 86 “Since the believe themselves certain of salvation when they say that a man is absolved and Pope’s wealth is larger than that of the because of letters of pardon will be eternally saved from every penalty” and he does crassest Crassi of our time, why does he not damned together with their teachers” rather criticise the pope: thesis 5 “the pope has build this one basilica of St Peter with his own salvation was through the word of God rather neither the will nor the power to remit any money, rather than with that of his faithful than ‘good works’ of the church: thesis 62 penalties beyond those he has imposed” but he poor” “The true treasure of the Church is the holy does not mount a complete attack on the pope: Furthermore the theses written in Latin were Gospel of the glory and grace of God” thesis 38 “yet the Pope’s remission and quickly translated into German and published. dispensation are in no way to be despised” Fundamental to this protest was Luther’s ideas about the church’s teaching on salvation.  In his early years Luther had accepted the Church's teaching that salvation was to be gained by being 'sin-free' at the time of death. This could be assured by carrying out good works in life which could counterbalance any sins committed. This followed the teachings of St Thomas Aquinas – Thomism. o This belief in doing good works can be seen in his visit to Rome in 1510 which he saw as a pilgrimage. -1-  He attended services, visited the seven pilgrim churches, prayed before the high altar of St Peter’s. He climbed the Scala Sancta on his knees, saying a prayer at each step to save the soul of his grandfather from purgatory. o If he saw Rome as evidence of the corruption of the Church, he did not mention this at the time.  With his increasing study of the Bible at Wittenberg University from 1511, and later as a professor of biblical theology, he became convinced that here, rather than in the teachings of the Church, lay the true meaning of God's will. o He moved from a ‘Scholastic’ method of learning – with its emphasis on memorising, and testing this through questions and logical debate to a ‘humanist’ approach of ‘ad fontes’ (looking at original texts) – finding out for himself from the bible rather than on memorising the writings of medieval writers. o For example he used the humanist Erasmus’s New Testament in Greek published in 1516 to teach himself Greek. o This was the basis of what later was to become ‘sola scriptura’ – that the spiritual truth could only be found out in the bible alone.  These years also so the beginnings of his idea of salvation by faith. The latin phrase sola fide (by faith alone) was to become the central idea of Luther's thinking. o This can be seen in his series of lectures in 1515 (on the Book of Psalms and St Paul’s Letter to the Romans). Here he reconciled St Augustine’s ideas that God alone chose those who would be saved (predestination) with his sense that there was no point in decisions made by men. He thought this was an unyielding idea. o He interpreted the force of the phrase 'by faith are ye saved' as being 'by faith alone are ye saved' from St Paul’s Letter to the Romans. God would be merciful to a just man who lead a just life.  Luther became convinced that the Church's teachings on matters of salvation were fundamentally incorrect. Good works were not only useless in gaining salvation: they could even lead to damnation if they were looked upon as a substitute for faith. But there were other reasons: The Indulgences Controversy  Once Luther accepted that 'good works' were a sign of being saved rather than the cause of it, it was impossible to attach any value to indulgences. He was convinced that these people were being fatally misled by the Church.  The issue had been brought to a head by the activities of Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar. Tetzel was selling indulgences in the area near to Wittenberg.  Not only could they assure forgiveness for all the sins of the purchaser, they could even secure the release from purgatory of the soul of a friend or relative who was already dead.  The jingle ran: ‘As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, So the soul from purgatory springs.’  Tens of thousands of people, including many from Wittenberg who made special journeys to reach Tetzel, invested their savings in indulgences.  It was with these events especially in mind that Luther wrote his Ninetyfive Theses.  Johann Tetzel had been hired by Albert of Brandenberg to raise money selling indulgences. This had been a deal with Pope Leo X, who granted Albert the position as Archbishop of Mainz (even though he was already Archbishop of Magdeburg and Bishop of Halberstadt) in exchange for funds to pay for the building of St Peter’s Basilica.  Luther hoped that the arguments contained in his theses would convince the Archbishop of Mainz, Albert of Brandenburg, under whose authority Tetzel was operating, that the sale of indulgences should -2-  be halted. He therefore sent him a copy of the Ninety five Theses, along with a covering letter in which he explained why he was so concerned. What was the impact of the Ninety-Five Theses? On the one hand Luther did not intend to trigger a revolution:  He wanted to provoke a debate.  The supposed pinning to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg was just an invitation to debate in Wittenberg, a university town. Disputations was a regular part of university life  He wrote in latin – his intended audience was students and professors.  This was not unusual – His colleague, Andreas Carlstadt had done the same thing in April 1517, writing 151 theses against indulgences.  While the 95 Theses were critical, the tone was also restrained. For example thesis 38 “yet the Pope’s remission and dispensation are in no way to be despised”.  He also sent the 95 theses with a letter to Albert of Mainz. Again the letter was critical of indulgences, expressed concerns about Tetzel, and criticised Albert. But the tone was polite and respectful of Albert’s position. However the 95 Theses spread quickly:  The theses were taken down without Luther’s knowledge or permission, translated in German, printed and spread rapidly. Within two weeks it had spread across Germany, within a month it had reached Thomas More in England. The invention of the printing press made this possible.  Luther had made a sermon about this a year before, and Carlstadt had written his 151 these in April, all with no impact. But the irresponsible salesmanship of Tetzel caused concern.  The tone and language was written in a way ordinary people could understand.  There were populist themes that German nationalists, anti-papalists and the poor could understand. -3- How and why does Luther’s challenge to the Catholic Church change between 1517-21? Luther’s ideas develop between 1517-21: 1. Attack on the teachings of the church – Theological challenge: Luther’s initial ideas  Luther was not concerned with power and fame, he was a theologian, not a politician.  His overriding concern was with his own salvation. What mattered was the soul. It had the potential for eternal life, against which the few years spent on earth were insignificant. ‘sola fide’  According to Luther, writing in 1545 in an Autobiographical Fragment, it was in 1519, while locked away in his study, he realised in a flash of inspiration (known as the ‘tower experience’) that salvation was secured by what one believed and not by what one did: o "I began to understand that in this verse [from St Peter’s letter to the Romans, in the bible] the justice of God is that by which the just person lives by a gift of God, that is by faith.”  There is evidence that the idea of justification by faith was in his thinking well before 1519 or even 1517, but as historian Diarmaid MacCulloch argues that this idea became more clear to him. (“the balance between the claims of authority (the Church) and the claims of faith seen through Scripture began to tilt in his mind”)  Thus what may have appeared to be a disagreement over a minor, and relatively recent, practice of the Church - the sale of indulgences - was actually the result of a fundamental difference of view  On the one hand, Luther was committed to the idea of sola fide, of salvation by faith alone  On the other hand, the Catholic Church was equally committed to the idea of good works as a method of salvation.  Luther published 24 pamphlets in 1520, and this was the year in which Luther explained his theology (views about God) in writing. In his pamphlet – Concerning Christian Liberty – he wanted to share his sense of liberation in knowing that Christ would save all those who truly believed, justification by faith or sola fide. People still had free will, but Luther argued that a man of faith would not choose to ignore God’s teachings and commandments but would behave naturally in a good way, instinctively doing good works. ‘sola scriptura’  What made the conflict between Luther and the papacy so much more than a theological dispute was the way in which Luther thought through the implications of his ideas in the three years between the Ninety-five Theses and the bull Exsurge Domine.  This idea of authority coming only from scripture, the bible, can be seen clearly in the Disputation at Leipzig (1519) with the Catholic professor and defender – Dr Johann Eck. Eck accused Luther of the same heresy and Jan Hus, a heretic who had been condemned by a council of the church (the Council of Constance). Luther argued that there was no evidence for the papacy, nor his authority, nor the authority of councils of the church – because the only authority was that in scripture alone – sola scriptura.  This led him to reject the Pope's claim of being God's appointed representative on earth because no justification for this could be found in the Bible.  It was for this reason that, when the bull Exsurge Domine was burned publicly, Luther was rejecting any authority that could not be justified by the Bible. -4- 2. Attack on the people of power in the church - Anticlericalism:  At first in the Ninety-Five Theses there are examples of attacks on those who endorsed the selling of indulgences targeting the likes of John Tetzel.  By 1519, he had formed his ideas of sola scriptura into a sound argument that had many implications – the most serious implication of the bible was the rejection of even the Pope. Luther had started off by merely claiming that the Pope was exceeding his powers. Suddenly, he was claiming that the Pope had no special powers at all?  This was Luther idea of a ‘priesthood of all believers’ where all were equal in the eyes of god and there was no special status or authority for priests. He talked about this in his 1520 pamphlet – To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation.  Another 1520 pamphlet – On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church – compared the papacy with the Kingdom of Babylon which in the Old Testament had enslaved the Jews. He said how the Church’s teachings on sacraments were designed to make the people enslaved to the authority of the priests. o Luther thought that only the sacraments that were justified in the bible were the Eucharist, baptism and penance rather than the seven practiced by the Church. o Some humanists such as Erasmus and Thomas More thought he went too far.  Following this Pope Leo X sent his bull of excommunication “Exsurge Domine” (Lord, Cast out) in June 1520. Luther showed his contempt for the Pope by burning the Bull publicly. Shortly afterwards, he produced a vicious pamphlet whose title Against the Bull of the Antichrist claimed that the Pope was the devil! 3. Attack on the Church as a distant/ foreign body - German Nationalism  Although these were published to provoke debate about salvation and as an attack on indulgences, Luther took advantage of the anti-church feeling amongst many Germans: Thesis 86 Since the Pope’s weath is larger than that of the crassest Crassi of our time, why does he not build this one basilica of St Peter with his own money, rather than with that of his faithful poor? Commentary: Although the theses were not meant for widespread circulation, one wonders if Luther knew that they might be circulated in German, for here is a point aimed directly at the common man, reinforcing widespread anti-clerical sentiment.  Futhermore the Ninety-Five Theses were translated into German and circulated across Germany within two weeks.  Luther published 24 pamplets in 1520, and this was the year in which Luther explained his theology (views about God) in writing. The most nationalistic was: Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation – here, Luther appealed to a patriotic audience and the elite of society. He called upon all with authority in Germany – princes, city magistrates, imperial knights – to undertake and oversee reform. o This was because the spiritual authorities had failed to do so. o He stated ‘the time for silence is gone, and the time to speak had come’ o He attacked three walls that he said the church used to prevent reform:  The church claimed that spiritual power was above the ‘temporal’ power of princes to ask for reform  That only the pope could interpret the scriptures  That when a council was threatened to introduce reform – only the pope could call a council  After 1520, Luther cleverly began to adapt his message to suit a wider audience. He knew that criticism of papal taxation would not fall on deaf ears in a Germany resentful of seeing their hard-earned money disappear over the -5-  Alps to a foreign figurehead they had never seen before. Luther wrote countless pamphlets or flugschriften, which were eagerly received by the literate populace and read aloud to the rest.  The great nineteenth-century German historian, Leopold von Ranke, established the Lutheran Reformation as a decisive step towards the creation of the German nation state which eventually became a political reality in 1871. In his view, the Reformation was a struggle by the German people to cast off the control of a corrupt foreign power - the papacy - and to pursue their own purified version of Christianity. Summary of the 3 key pamphlets from 1520 Luther published 24 pamplets in 1520, and this was the year in which Luther explained his theology (views about God) in writing. These are examples of how Luther’s ideas were put down in a concrete way. (They are already mentioned in the notes against the events where the ideas began to be clearly formed): Concerning Christian Liberty  In his pamphlet – Concerning Christian Liberty – he wanted to share his sense of liberation in knowing that Christ would save all those who truly believed, justification by faith or sola fide. People still had free will, but Luther argued that a man of faith would not choose to ignore God’s teachings and commandments but would behave naturally in a good way, instinctively doing good works. On the Bablyonish Captivity of the Church  The 1520 pamphlet – On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church – compared the papacy with the Kingdom of Babylon which in the Old Testament had enslaved the Jews. He said how the Church’s teachings on sacraments were designed to make the people enslaved to the authority of the priests. o Luther thought that only the sacraments that were justified in the bible were the Eucharist, baptism and penance rather than the seven practiced by the Church. o Some humanists such as Erasmus and Thomas More thought he went too far. Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation  The most nationalistic was: Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation – here, Luther appealed to a patriotic audience and the elite of society. He called upon all with authority in Germany – princes, city magistrates, imperial knights – to undertake and oversee reform. o This was because the spiritual authorities had failed to do so. o He stated ‘the time for silence is gone, and the time to speak had come’ o He attacked three walls that he said the church used to prevent reform:  The church claimed that spiritual power was above the ‘temporal’ power of princes to ask for reform  That only the pope could interpret the scriptures  That when a council was threatened to introduce reform – only the pope could call a council  Also, Luther’s idea of a ‘priesthood of all believers’ is explained in this pamphlet, To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, where all were equal in the eyes of god and there was no special status or authority for priests. -6- His challenge to the Catholic Church changes so fast because the approach by the church is heavy handed and unsuccessful: Summary diagram: Attempts to silence Luther, 1517-21 Luther is... By At With the effect that 1518 Underestimated Leo and Heidelberg The meeting was positive for the Luther Augustinian order 1518 Threatened Cardinal Augsburg Luther refuses to Cajetan Abandon sola fide 1519 Questioned Johann Eck Leipzig Luther develops the idea of sola scriptura 1520 Excommunicated Pope Leo Rome Luther decides that the Pope is the Antichrist 1521 Outlawed Charles V Worms Luther realises that Charles V April will not compromise 1521 Protected Frederick Wartburg Luther starts to write a German May the Wise Bible -7- Underestimated at Heidelberg  When Leo receives news of the 95 Theses from Albert of Mainz he initially underestimated the issue. There was a longstanding rivalry between the Dominican order of friars (Tetzel was a Dominican) and the Augustinian order (Luther’s order of monk). Leo had other concerns such as trying to pull Europe together to mount a crusade against the Muslim Ottoman Empire.  Consequently he ordered the prior general of the Augustinian order to silence Luther – a low key option.  The prior general delegated this to Luther’s mentor Johann von Staupitz, head of the Augustinians in Germany. At a meeting in Heidelberg in April 1518 von Staupitz invited Luther to speak (but to keep away from the issue of indulgences). His talk on sin, freewill and grace was well received. He drew strength from the public support he men en route to Heidelberg and the fact that his order did not reject him. Threatened by Cardinal Cajetan  The reaction of the Pope, Leo X (1513-21), was swift.  Cardinal Cajetan was sent to Germany to deal with him. Cajetan summoned Luther to meet him in Augsburg in October 1518 and made it clear that the Pope's patience was running out. For several days, Cajetan bullied Luther by threatening terrible punishments if he did not withdraw his criticisms of the Church.  Luther remained unmoved. His conscience would not allow him to change it. He could abandon his point of view only if he could either be shown evidence from the Bible which proved him wrong, or be convinced of his errors by 'sound reason'.  The Church's position was equally clear. It maintained that it was for the Pope alone to interpret the Bible and to decide the teaching of the Church. The Church merely had to insist on good discipline. Luther is questioned by Johann Eck  After Cajetan's unsuccessful mission the Pope realised that threats against Luther were never going to work. The Church was offering no defence to Luther's charges and was leaving the way clear for him to gain increasing numbers of supporters in Germany.  A formal debate was arranged to take place in Leipzig in July 1519. Doctor Johann Eck was chosen to uphold the Church's position. He was recognised as being the most skilful debater in Germany. For 18 days the issues were argued before a panel of 'neutral' academics.  Eck won the competition in technical terms. He scored numerous debating points, trapping Luther into putting forward some indefensible arguments. But Luther's passion and conviction impressed observers more than Eck's cold logic.  Luther had come to Leipzig with the reputation of being a tiresome rebel who just needed to be brought under control. However, the debate gave him the reputation of an inspirational revolutionary.  The debate with Eck forced Luther to develop his own arguments. Luther had already developed the idea that entry into heaven could only be through sola fide (faith alone). Now, he developed his second revolutionary idea: that the way of searching for that faith was through sola scriptura (scripture alone).  Luther had started off by merely claiming that the Pope was exceeding his powers. o Eck had accused him of challenging Papal supremacy, and of holding the same heretical beliefs as Hus, who had been burnt at the stake for denying papal authority and attacking the church’s teachings. o Luther, cornered, ended up saying that there was no evidence for a pope of any sort in the scriptures and therefore that the pope had not authority. o Suddenly, he was claiming that the Pope had no special powers at all! Instead of merely seeking the reform of abuses, Luther was now challenging the very foundations of the Church itself. -8-   The Leipzig debates can be seen as a turning point in that: o Luther had been forced to express ideas well beyond anything he might have contemplated in 1517. o He was seen as a heretic – his denial of Papal supremacy was the same as Hus, and which had led to his execution as a heretic. o Luther achieved considerable publicity. o Eck reported to Rome that Luther was unquestionably a heretic. With the papacy under challenge by Luther, the Pope was more likely now to act severely. Luther is excommunicated by Pope Leo X  Following the Leipzig debate, Pope Leo X decided that Luther should suffer excommunication. This would be done by sending him a legal document, a bull informing him that he was an outcast from the Church.  The Bull of Excommunication, known by its first words, Exsurge Domine ('Lord, cast out'), was issued in June 1520.  Luther showed his contempt for the Pope by burning the Bull publicly. Shortly afterwards, he produced a vicious pamphlet whose title Against the Bull of the Antichrist claimed that the Pope was the devil! This was the point of no return for Luther. Charles is unable to silence Luther at the Diet of Worms  At this point, the Pope called upon Emperor Charles V to bring Luther under control. The Pope's strategy was a sensible one. While the Church had spiritual authority in Germany, the Pope had to rely on the support of the princes to exercise worldly power. Any direct action would have been regarded as a massive overreaction and would be guaranteed to sting German pride.  Firstly, Frederick of Saxony owed obedience to the Holy Roman Emperor, as did all the rulers of the states in Germany.  Secondly, Emperor Charles V was a strong Catholic who was determined to uphold the interests of the Church. Charles invites Luther to attend the Diet of Worms  Charles decided to allow Luther to make an appearance so that there could be no complaint of unfair treatment. Luther was summoned to appear at Worms under a promise of 'safe conduct' which would protect him from arrest  However it was also remembered that Jan Huss had been arrested and executed while under a promise of safe conduct. But Luther regarded himself as being in God's hands.  At the assembly, Luther stood by his writings and his position against the papacy, challenging the church authorities to prove him wrong using the Bible.  Given the evidence, there could be only one outcome of Luther's trial at Worms - he was found guilty of heresy.  In the Edict of Worms Charles announced that Luther and all who supported him would be punished unless they immediately agreed to accept the teachings and authority of the Church. The terms of the bull Exsurge Domine should be carried out by all citizens of the Empire  Charles pledged himself: “To settle this matter, I am determined to use my kingdoms and dominions, my friends, my body, my blood, my life and my soul” Frederick the Wise -9- Following the Edict of Worms 1521 the protection of Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony was key to Luther’s survival and of his message. (even though Frederick dies in 1525 unconverted to Protestantism)  On the way back from Worms he was ‘kidnapped’ by Frederick the Wise’s forces and kept captive in Frederick’s castle of Wartburg.  Luther lived in the German state of electoral Saxony where the Pope’s direct influence was minimal.  As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick was powerful and influential. He was someone whose cooperation the Emperor needed.  It was Frederick who had persuaded Charles to allow Luther to argue his case at Worms.  Frederick did not carry out the Edict in Saxony  He was a skilled politician. He was always careful to keep his options open, he suggested alternatives rather than just refuse the Emperor. He suggested that the issue should be decided at a council of the German Church. A good tactic as a German council had been called in the past and ignored by the Italian dominated Catholic church. Frederick also presented himself as being reasonable, maintaining that his aim was the reform of abuses within the Church, not the establishment of an alternative organisation. - 10 - Conclusions There are a number of reasons to explain by Luther’s challenge to the church developed rapidly. Luther received encouragement  Ordinary people were delighted by with Luther’s attacks. They appealed to their anti-Italian, anti-clerical feelings and the belief that Rome was milking Germany for money.  Luther attracted support from humanists such as Melanchthon who arrived in Wittenberg in 1518, and Ulrich von Hutten who gave his full support by 1520.  He also had powerful protectors, such as Frederick the Wise, and his mentor John Staupitz and the Augustinian order at Heidelberg. They might not necessarily have agreed with what Luther was saying, but their protection kept him alive. Luther’s character was important  Luther’s was not the sort of personality to back down, but rather was encouraged and grew bolder when criticised.  This can be seen at the beginning with the 95 Theses where his letter to Albert of Mainz had a challenging undertone.  His defiance of the papal bull took courage. But most importantly, the reaction of the Church and their wrong tactics allowed Luther’s ideas to develop.  The Church underestimated him at first: o Albert of Mainz failed to move quickly to rein in Tetzel. Tetzel was only retired in late 1518. o Leo initially misjudged Luther and left it to the Augustinian order to deal with him, and this only led to Luther being encouraged. o The papacy’s pace after October 1518 was too slow because Leo was more concerned not to offend Frederick the Wise who as elector had influence over the election of the new Emperor. o After Charles V was elected in June 1519, the papacy still did nothing for 6 months.  The pressure applied by the Church forced Luther to think through and expand on his ideas: o Cajetan was too heavy-handed in demanding a retraction without discussion. It made Luther more convinced that he was right if the church was not going to even discuss it. Being bullied in this way made him more popular with critics of the church. o In the Leipzig debates Eck attacked Luther on the issue of integrity and the authority of the papacy, which helped Luther to focus on the issue that authority was to be found in the bible (sola scriptura) rather than in the papacy and institutions of the church. Overall While it has been argued that Luther’s ideas – sola fide and sola scriptura – were there in the beginning and did not fundamentally change between 1517 and 1521.  They were there in private before 1517 and in the 95 Theses.  And the events of these years, and the encouragement he received only helped him to make them public and to bring them to a logical conclusion Alternatively, it was a genuine development from just a grievance about indulgences  External pressure forced Luther to do new research and thinking.  Only then did he fully form his ideas of sola fide and sola scriptura - 11 -  Moments of clarity such as the ‘Tower Experience’ happened only after 1517.  The actions of the Church were most to blame. - 12 -  2 Causes of the Reformation So far we have seen that the Reformation was the product of the beliefs and challenging actions of Luther. But it was clearly also due to the actions of others, e.g. Frederick the Wise. Furthermore, it was down to broader factors other than these individuals – the obvious suggestion is that Luther’s ideas were well received because the state of religion in Germany was in such a poor way. How far was the Reformation caused by a questioning of the beliefs of the Church? It seems obvious, and yet unconvincing, to say that the Reformation was due to anger at the beliefs of the church RELIGIOUS FACTORS On the one hand there is evidence to suggest that the State of Religion was unhealthy in 1500 Historians such as Geoffrey Elton and A.G. Dickens emphasised the corruption and abuses in the church and how this was important to the reception of Luther’s ideas. They suggest that the Church was already under serious attack before Luther: 1. Under attack by heretics: Wycliffe (1320-84) and Huss (1368-1415)  Luther’s criticisms of the church already existed in the ideas of these previous heretics:  They believed that the Church contradicted the teachings of the Bible  They attracted numbers of followers (‘Lollards’ and ‘Hussites’) who were prepared to die for their new beliefs.  Wycliffe in particular stressed the importance of individual access to the scriptures and produced a Bible in English by 1384.  Huss rejected the value of indulgences and so challenged the authority of the Pope.  All of these ideas are similar to Luther. 2. Under attack from within: Movements, the Brethren of Common Life and Devotio Moderna  Movements in the Catholic Church wanted a reform to inward worship based on the teachings of Christ and not simply by outward good works:  There were groups within the Church who also wanted similar ideas to those of Luther.  The Brethren of Common Life stressed the need for an individual worship of God based on the teachings of Christ.  The Devotio Moderna movement stressed the need for inward reflection rather than outward good works. 3. Humanism was calling religious ideas into question, challenging established Church ideas. (See below in Cultural Factors) On the other hand: there is evidence that the state of religion was healthy in 1500 - 13 - Historians (Heiko Oberman on Germany, J.J. Scarisbrick and Christopher Haigh on England) have stressed how the Catholic church with its own reform movements such as the Devotio Moderna and the Brethren of Common Life and that the Church was open to new ideas. They also stress how ordinary people were attached to the practices and rituals of the Catholic church. 1. Heretics were unsuccessful Wycliffe and Huss  That these individuals failed to have a significant impact outside their respective countries:  Wycliffe and Huss failed to make a major impact upon the Church.  The Lollards were driven underground after their most prominent supporter, Sir John Oldcastle was burned as a heretic in 1416.  The Hussites did spread after the execution of Huss in 1415 for heresy, gaining control over the church in parts of Bohemia. However they made little impact beyond this. 2. Movements show that the church could reform itself from within: the Brethren of Common Life and Devotio Moderna  These movements could have been easily accommodated, and did not want to break with the Catholic Church.  What these movements show is that there was continued enthusiasm and vitality within the Church.  In the long run, it is argued that the Church would have reformed itself. That the process had already begun before and continued after Luther. In the Second Vatican Council (1962-96) the Catholic Church recognised that Luther’s ideas could be seen as part of this long term process of internal reform. 3. Despite the criticisms of Humanists, those like Erasmus and Thomas More did not want to break with the Church or be heretical (See Cultural Factors) 4. The church was important to people’s lives and they showed little sign of discontent with the beliefs of the church.  Many Catholic figures associated with the Reformation showed little dissatisfaction o For example, Frederick of Saxony had 19,000 holy relics. o Henry VIII of England made a barefoot pilgrimage to Walsingham and was given the tile of ‘Defender of the Faith’ by the Pope, even though he eventually broke with Rome.  Ordinary people were not dissatisfied with Church sacraments and its ideas about salvation: o The afterlife was of great importance to most people. Death was an ever present factor in people’s lives: child mortality was high, many women died in child birth, 40 was considered old. For most people, the guidance of the church in how to achieve salvation was important o In upper Austria, the number of Masses endowed to be said for the dead increased greatly reaching a peak in 1517. o There were mass pilgrimages e.g. to Mont St Michel in 1457 made up of children from southern Germany o In 1500 religion – in terms of the intervention of God or the Devil in people’s lives – was used to explain why disasters happened. But appealing to God through prayer was thought to be only possible through his representatives on earth – priests or the clergy – on his representatives in heaven – the saints. Many people especially women appealed to the Virgin Mary. Luther when caught in a thunderstorm in 1505 appealed to St Anne CULTURAL FACTORS (Humanism) Related to this question of the state of religion was the cultural movement called ‘Humanism’ led by Desiderius Erasmus which began to challenge an unquestioning continuation of church beliefs and practices. This opened the way for Luther; as Cardinal Aleander put it at the time, “Erasmus laid the egg and Luther hatched it”. - 14 - What was Humanism?  They believed in ‘ad fontes’ or ‘back to the original’. This was the study of the writings of ancient Greece and Rome, a desire to go back to the earliest and so purest texts, to see what the original authors intended rather than put up with medieval texts that were incomplete or mistranslations.  Rather than the medieval idea of man being sinful, and weighed down by sin, they emphasised the potential of man, and that individuals should push themselves and challenge accepted view points rather than take them for granted.  These ideas potentially challenged the church but were tolerated. Most churchmen wanted just obedience, but some welcomed humanism as making it possible to come to a clearer understanding of God and his will, and so humanists were allowed to continue. This humanism opened the way for Luther’s questioning and challenging of the church:  Erasmus was a Christian Humanist and held similar to Luther’s ideas of sola scriptura.  As a Christian Humanist he applied the techniques of ‘ad fontes’ to Christian Scripture.  He turned away from the official latin bible – the Vulgate. And he looked at the earlier Greek version of the new testament, and the Hebrew old testament.  In 1515 he produced a new Greek-Latin bible using the original Greek sources. It was this that Luther used to produce his German Bible  Like Luther, he was critical of the church: o 1504 The Dagger of a Christian Gentleman He encouraged a focus on the teachings of Christ, and rejected mindless ritual. ‘We kiss the shoes of saints and their dirty handkerchiefs, yet we leave their words, their most holy relics, neglected’ o 1509 In Praise of Folly He criticised the faults of the typical churchman, in particular practices such as indulgences. o 1513 Julius Exclusus An anonymous, but rumoured to be by Erasmus, attack on Pope Julius II for his corruption and lack of spirituality. But there was a key difference between Erasmus and Luther. Erasmus did not want to break the Catholic Church:  Erasmus drew different conclusions. While he initially supported Luther’s criticisms of Church practices, he stopped short of heresy – going against the beliefs of the Church. He felt Luther’s heresy would ‘tear the seamless robe of Christ’ and lead to terrible bloodshed.  He was not a heretic – he was against Luther’s idea of predestination (The Free Will, 1524) He rejected Luther’s idea that your fate in the afterlife was already decided. As a humanist he believed that man had potential that could be realised through self-improvement and that man had the free will or choice to do this.  And he wished to stay within the Catholic Church, as he explained to the Papal Legate in 1520 “I would rather see things left as they are than to see a revolution which may lead to one knows not what… you may assure yourself that Erasmus has been, and always will be, a faithful subject of the Roman See” Despite these differences Humanism was important to the development of Lutheranism:  While many humanists, like Erasmus, stayed faithful to the Catholic Church e.g. Thomas More who became a martyr rather than renounce his allegiance to the Church.  They provided the tools inadvertently for Luther  Erasmus and the humanists provided Luther with the idea that you should go back to the original text. e.g. Luther uses Erasmus’ Greek-Latin translation of the bible to write his German bible in 1522. By using the original sources this provided a way to be critical of the Church in Luther’s day.  German historian Bernd Moeller: ‘No humanism, no Reformation’ - 15 - If it was not a question of a crisis of belief, then what other aspects of the church caused resentment: ANTICLERICALISM  The balance of evidence suggests that heresy was not widespread at the time that Luther made his protest. However, there is plenty of other evidence that anticlericalism was more prevalent – questioning the practices of the church Anticlericalism against the parish priest  The parish priest key to the lives of his parishioners:  He heard mass every Sunday, and performed the sacraments which could guarantee salvation. He was key to helping his parishioners get to heaven.  And yet the priest was resented for the taxes imposed upon his parishioners:  The ‘tithe’ was a tax of 10% of each parishioner’s income.  ‘Annates’ was the first year’s income of a parish priest that had to be handed over to the pope.  Given how expensive a priest was any abuses by the church were resented  Critics in writers such as Erasmus – see 1509 In Praise of Folly  A list of grievances by craft guilds of Cologne in 1513 included criticism of priests holding secular council posts, priests not paying taxes on their wine, and the need to preach honestly.  In 1476 Hans Bohm, the ‘Drummer of Niklashausen’, attacked the clergy for their demands on the ordinary people. Anticlericalism against the abuses of the church which were increasingly resented:  simony – sale of church posts or sacred objects  nepotism – giving posts (parish priests, bishops, cardinals) to family members  pluralism – priests holding more than one church post simultaneously  absenteeism – priests being away for extended periods from your parish or post (only 1 in 14 parishes had a regular priest) Anticlericalism directed against the papacy  The pope, as head of the church, exercised real power: o He could declare new laws or papal bulls o He appointed cardinals, authorised the appointment of archbishops, ran the Church government or curia in Rome. o He could excommunicate even kings o Gathered revenue from the whole church in indulgences and annates.  By 1500, his reputation had been called into question by certain powerful families in Italy:  The papacy was dragged into the Italian Wars by 1500, and powerful families especially the Medicis and Borgias were able to get their own candidates elected to the papacy, so as to further their own families’ interests.  Critics in writers such as Erasmus – see 1513 Julius Exclusus  And specifically by the secular ambitions of: o Alexander VI (1492-1503) Invited prostitutes to the Vatican. Created a kingdom out of the papal estates for his son, Cesare Borgia. Married off his daughter, Lucrezia for political gain despite being already married. o Julius II (1503-13) Known as the ‘Warrior Pope’ was more interested in military adventures than spiritual matters. Scandalous suggestions that he had sexual relationships with other men. - 16 -  o Leo X (1513-21) Raised money through indulgences and simony to pay for the building of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and military campaigns. And what made anti-clericalism particularly strong in Germany were its political (and economic) circumstances: POLITICAL FACTORS  One reason why the Reformation started in Germany rather than anywhere else is because the Church was exploiting Germany more than other nations.  This was because Germany did not have a strong central government to resist financial demands from the Pope  By 1500, England, France and Spain had strong centralised governments that were able to negotiate better deals with the papacy such as lower taxes, and had more control over the church in their own countries.  By contrast Germany lacked this. It had over 300 states, a mishmash of princes, knights, imperial cities that made up the Holy Roman Empire, e.g. According to the Venetian ambassador in 1507, there were states led by, amongst others, 2 kings, 30 dukes, 4 landgraves, 20 abbots, 15 priors, and over 100 free cities.  Large sums could be extracted out of the ruling families in Germany: o Because unlike England, France, Spain they were not strong enough to resist large demands for such things as purchasing senior church positions for their younger sons, especially if the child was under-age or required special papal dispensation (permission) before it could take place.  And from ordinary Germans: o Through the sale of indulgences, especially since one fifth of Germany was controlled by independent bishops and archbishops such as Mainz, Cologne and Trier. e.g. Johann Tetzel who outraged Luther by the selling of outrageous indulgences in the lands bordering Saxony. NATIONALISM  This financial exploitation by the Church was an insult to German nationalist pride.  (German Nationalist = at this time, despite Germany not being a country, there was common identity and pride in German language and culture.)  This was particularly true because the church was in the hands of foreigners:  Pope was seen as a foreign ruler, usually Italian, living in Rome, surrounded by cardinals (highest rank in the clergy) who he appointed and who were also predominantly Italian.  John Lotherington: ‘This anti-Papalism…did mean that the enemy of the Pope might well be seen as the friend of the German people’. As the Reformation began, Luther was depicted as a ‘Hercules Germanicus’ a German superhero. - 17 -   Luther took advantage of this feeling in his 95 theses and in his other writings e.g. Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation – here, Luther appealed to a patriotic audience and the elite of society. He called upon the princes to undertake and oversee reform.  And Historians continue to debate the question:  The great nineteenth-century German historian, Leopold von Ranke, established the Lutheran Reformation as a decisive step towards the creation of the German nation state which eventually became a political reality in 1871. In his view, the Reformation was a struggle by the German people to cast off the control of a corrupt foreign power - the papacy - and to pursue their own purified version of Christianity.  Ranke's view has since been developed and challenged in a number of respects: o For example, the Marxist historian Max Steinmetz argued that this revolution was not a religious revolution led by the ruling elites, but was instead a social revolution led by the peasant masses. o Another challenge to the Rankean idea has been provided by Schilling and Reinhard. They agree with Ranke that the Reformation was crucial in forming national identities, but disagree that this development was limited to Germany. The cultural identity of England was very sharply defined by its Reformation under the Tudor monarchs, as has been demonstrated by historians such as Diarmaid MacCulloch ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES – LOOK AT SECTION 3 and SOCIO- ECONOMIC FACTORS - 18 -  3 The Development of Lutheranism Was Luther in control of the Reformation? Luther in control Luther not in control 1520 Address to the Christian Loses control to Radical Reformers who break out Nobility in Germany – idea of in extreme action: magisterial reformation  Carlstadt (p222) Luther arguably condemns radical  Especially Knight’s War (p223) where led reformers: Luther doesn’t condemn their actions. His reputation amongst princes is damaged  Returns to Wittenburg 1522  Peasants’ War (p224) – his reputation to deal with and expel damage amongst peasants is damaged (he Carlstadt and Zwickau visits his home area – the Mansfeld valley Events prophets (p223) and Thuringia to calm peasant rebellions down and is spat at)  1525 Condemns the Peasants’ War – Against the Robbing And after 1525 and Murdering Hordes of Peasants. Re-establishes  Unable to heal differences with Zwingli at idea of magisterial the Marburg Colloquy 1529 over the reformation (p226) Eucharist and the issue of the ‘real presence’  1539 and reputation damaged by over his Clear after 1525 that this was to be a support for Philip of Hesse’s bigamy magisterial reformation. Publications – to different classes Personal limitations – too much an intellectual (see e.g. Bibles from princes, Great and quotation from historian Andrew Pettegree on Small Catechism for those with p234) concerned with refining his ideas/ translations access to a preacher, woodcuts and rather than the practicalities of his spreading hymns for the illiterate. Lutheranism. Reinforces his idea of the ‘real Other preachers take the lead – Melanchthon (p234) presence’ in publication of his stating Lutheranism concisely in the Augsburg Ideas German Mass Confession, Bugenhagen (p236) and church organisation – the Saxon Model And after 1525  Unable to heal differences with Zwingli at the Marburg Colloquy 1529 over the Eucharist and the issue of the ‘real presence’  1539 and reputation damaged by over his support for Philip of Hesse’s bigamy - 19 - Debates/ Conclusions  Arguably 1525 might seem in terms of events the point at which Luther re-establishes control of the Reformation – a magisterial reformation. However, there is the question of whether he was convincingly in control of events – consider the reputational damage he suffers on all sides.  Consider the comparison between whether Luther was in control of events vs his message. Arguably there is all the evidence of his translations of the bible, mass, catechisms, hymns suggesting that Luther was in more control of spreading his message, than he might have been of events.  However, arguably there are many reasons why his control over the spread of the Reformation declines – factors such as personal shortcomings such as his illnesses/ age, reputational damage from, for example, the issue of Hesse’s bigamy and loss of popularity amongst the peasantry. Perhaps most importantly it is others take charge (especially after the 1530s and the political, military leadership of the princes) Was Luther in control of events? The Radical Reformation Luther’s teachings that challenged the ideas of the Catholic Church led to radicals who took his ideas and followed them to what they saw as their logical conclusion: Radical Beliefs: Iconoclasts  They agreed with Luther that images of saints in churches were a distraction, but went further by violently stripping them out in acts of vandalism Anabaptists  They rejected infant baptism because it was not in the Bible, Luther’s idea of sola scriptura. But without infant baptism it was feared that a whole generation could grow up uncontrolled by the church. Communitarians  They campaigned for a redistribution of the wealth and power of the rich to the poor, arguing that Luther’s idea of ‘a priesthood of all believers’ meant that people were not just spiritually equal before God, but should also be equal in social and economic senses. Whereas Luther divided the two worlds of religion and non-religious or secular affairs. Spiritualists  Believed that he could communicate directly with God through dreams. Described the Bible as a ‘paper Pope’. Individual Radicals Andreas Carlstadt When Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522, he discovered the city had come under the influence of Andreas Carlstadt. He had been a colleague of Luther, but he proposed more radical ideas and a quicker pace of change:  He suggested churches should be immediately cleansed of images and altars, using violence of necessary, smashing statues and images – iconoclasm.  He took a 15-year old wife and encouraged others including monks to do the same rapidly  Carlstadt stopped baptising infants. - 20 -   He and his followers welcomed an extremist group the Zwickau Prophets (3 preachers who suggested that they were in close communication with God, did not need the bible, and that the ungodly should be slaughtered)  He disagreed with Luther over the communion part of the Mass over the ‘real presence’ of Jesus in the bread and wine and therefore its importance.  Carlstadt proposed setting up a ‘poor relief fund’ to help the poor – it seemed that he was offering social reform, not just church reform. Thomas Muntzer and the Zwickau prophets  Thomas Muntzer was a priest that caused problems for Martin Luther in the city of Zwickau. He was an iconoclast, a communitarian and a spiritualist.  Muntzer started off as a follower of Luther agreeing with his view on indulgences and salvation. But he went further to arrive at these more radical positions.  Muntzer was convinced that God was telling him that the second coming of Christ was at hand – the Apocalypse – and that people should prepare the way.  In the end, Muntzer refused to accept Luther’s view that the Reformation should be controlled by moderates such as town and princely authorities. He radically believed that the Reformation was not just about tearing down the Papacy but other oppressive social and political structures. 1517-19 In Wittenberg and supported Martin Luther in the Indulgences Controversy 1520 Became a priest in Zwickau, Saxony. Influenced by the Zwickau prophets 1521 Expelled from Zwickau for his radical views 1524 Expelled from Allstedt, Saxony for claiming that God communicated directly through dreams 1524 Expelled from Muhlhausen for his communitarianism 1525 Became a leader of the Peasant’s War. Luther writes ‘Against the Murderous, Thieving Hoards of Peasants’ At Frankenhausen led a force of 8000 peasants. 5000 were slaughtered. He was tortured and executed Luther’s response was go to Wittenberg in March 1522 to put on his Augustinian robes and deliver 8 sermons, his ‘Invocavit Sermons’, denouncing Carlstadt, the pace of change and the use of violence. He demonstrated his conservatism for all to see. He also preached against the Zwickau prophets and that they should be expelled by the city authorities. The results:  Carlstadt was dismissed from the university and left Wittenberg in 1524  The Zwickau prophets were expelled from Wittenberg.  This showed that change was to be slow and imposed by the authorities, not by grassroots movements.  It showed Luther that his absence in Wartburg had left a vacuum. He created ways such as his catechisms to educate ordinary people in his ideas, not those of extremists, and made concessions such as clerical marriage (which was happening anyway) As well as individuals who took Luther’s ideas further than he intended there were also groups: The Imperial Knights  Imperial knights had been the policemen of the Holy Roman Empire in the early middle ages.  By 1500 their status had declined and role taken over by the princes and cities - 21 -   Some of them resented the loss of strong central control in the empire, and resented the influence of outsiders, in particular they resented the foreign domination of the Pope. They also resented that about a fifth of Germany was controlled by bishops and archbishops.  This group of knights were led by Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von Sickingen.  They were encouraged by Luther’s Ninety-five Theses as an attack on the church.  They read Luther’s 1520 pamphlet The Address to the Christian Nobility as justifying rebellion against established authority.  While men like Ulrich were humanists and agreed with Luther’s ideas, he went further: o military force should be used to accelerate the pace of reform o reform of religion should be accompanied by reform of the government.  Following the Edict of Worms, they acted against the Archbishop of Trier in 1522, launching an attack on his lands. This became known as the Knights’ War.  But with the support of other local princes, the Archbishop took the opportunity to put down the military power of these unruly knights, defeating them in 1523. Luther’s response While Luther had not been involved personally in the venture it had been carried out partly in his name. This convinced many people that Luther’s ideas were promoting anarchy. Remarkably Luther did not condemn this attack by the knights. Perhaps because of links between Melanchthon, Luther’s deputy and von Hutten, or perhaps because Hutten was a humanist, author of Letters of Obscure Men. It made him appear sympathetic to attacks on princes and those in authority by those below. The Peasants’ War Why did it happen?  Historians Scott and Scribner identified 14 separate causes of the revolt, as this was not a centrally organised uprising but a whole series of spontaneous revolts in which different people in different areas had different concerns.  But the causes can be summed up in a combination of: o Economic demands: Peasant discontent had been increasing for more than a century, against the increasingly heavier taxes and duties of landlords and the church and changes such as ‘enclosure’ of common land. o Spiritual demands: Luther’s works suggested that, like indulgences, exploitation of the poor was sinful. Furthermore, his call for spiritual equality, given ‘a priesthood of all believers’, was readily extended by the peasants to a demand for social equality.  The fact that priests, who claimed to be followers of Luther, joined the rebellions gave the impression that this was a religious rebellion. Luther was thought by some to be sympathetic to the plight of the poor. For example a 1519 woodcut pamphlet showed Luther with a halo and a dove over his head as though he was a prophet sent by God.  There was no central list of demands, but documents such as the Twelve Articles of Memmingen made demands such as the ending of tithes because it was not contained in the bible and that there should be a universal right to catch or shoot game because the bible gave this power over creation to all men. What happened?  Numerous local uprisings in the South West in 1524 turned into a widespread general rising in 1525 with peasant armies of up to 15,000 strong.  At Frankenhausen Thomas Muntzer led a force of 8000 peasants. 5000 were slaughtered. He was tortured and executed - 22 -   Although given the name of the Peasants' War, and despite a common symbol (the Bundschuh, or peasant's shoe), the struggle lacked unity and central leadership. Hundreds of castles, religious houses and towns were simply ransacked and then abandoned – e.g., in Franconia 270 castles and 52 cloisters or monasteries were destroyed.  So, it was relatively easy for the princes to re-establish control once the initial enthusiasm for revolt had subsided. They did this brutally, exterminating the leaders and frightening the remainder into submission. They were successful. It has been estimated that perhaps 100,000 peasants were executed. Luther’s response:  During the revolt of the Imperial Knights, Luther had kept silent. Although he had not been involved personally, it had been carried out partly in his name. This convinced many people that Luther’s ideas were promoting revolution.  But in reality, he was not sympathetic to the use of violence and rebellion. This was shown in his ‘Invocavit Sermons’ in 1522 and in the way people like Muntzer who encouraged peasant rebellion, condemned him, calling him ‘Doctor Liar’.  Although Luther initially sympathised with the peasants he was soon horrified by the excesses of their actions. In April 1524, he toured preaching in the area of Thuringia and the Mansfeld valley preaching to the peasantry to stop, but was received with hostility.  At the height of the crisis, he wrote a pamphlet called Against the Thieving, Murdering Hordes of Peasants in which he said that it was the holy duty of the princes to 'stab, smite, slay, whoever can. If you die in doing it, well for you! A more blessed death can never be yours, for you die in obeying the divine Word...' Conclusions about the Radical Reformation Luther establishes his conservative support for a ‘magisterial’ reformation by 1525:  Luther's position during the Peasants' War lost him considerable support among the poorer classes. When this pamphlet appeared the slaughter of the peasants was already at its height. The timing of its publication made it look as if Luther was callous and heartless.  Luther’s credibility as a champion of the common man, established by his stand against the church authorities in his Ninety-five Theses, was destroyed. Rather, Luther showed himself suspicious of the demands of ordinary people, and even advocated in the case of the peasants, their mass murder.  At the same time, the affair firmly re-established Luther's position among the rulers who were inclined towards reform of the Church. Any damage done by the activities of Hutten and Sickingen was more than repaired. He was clearly not hostile to the powers of the territorial rulers, as the Imperial Knights had been.  Rather he showed his conservative credentials, and that he supported the lead of the princes, and their rights and property. The events of the peasants and knights showed the dangers of allowing the laity to read scripture and interpret it for themselves. Instead there was the need for preachers and teachers to control interpretation of the bible.  Secular authorities started to take the initiative on reform, imposing it from above. For example, in August 1525 the Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach removed or punished all ‘unsuitable’ preachers and made sure the remainder were clear on the need to preach obedience to rulers.  From this point on there was a clear distinction between respectable magisterial reformation (led by the authorities, princes etc) and radical reformation (extremists with ideas that were not endorsed by Luther) Was Luther in control of the spread of his message? - 23 - Luther’s Role – on the one hand, Luther was key to the spread of his message. His ideas spread rapidly:  By 1500 the printing press made it possible for Luther’s ideas to be cheaply reproduced.  Between 1517-20 about 300,000 copies of Luther’s works were printed  His German Bible of 1522 sold 200,000 copies in just 12 years  His works spread particularly amongst the literate populations found in towns and cities  And the works spread across Europe: it took just 2 weeks for the Ninety-five Theses to get across Germany and little over a month to reach Thomas More in London. He clarified his message:  In 1520 Luther wrote 24 works. These were the 3 most important: o On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church He believed in a ‘priesthood of all believers’ He rejected 5 of the 7 sacraments, or special rituals of the church, especially Ordination and Penance o The Address to the Christian Nobility It was written in German and an appeal to the German Princes saying that it was role to reform the church from outside, rejecting the power of the Pope o Concerning Christian Liberty He clarified his message about why a man of faith would continue to do good works, but that it was not the works themselves but the thought and faith behind them that mattered. Having clarified his ideas, Luther sought to spread his ideas further to all groups in society: Appealing to the Ruling Classes: The Bible  Luther believed that all should have access to the word of God in the Bible because he believed there was the need for all to read the word of God for themselves.  He rejected the official Catholic bible in Latin as both with errors and poorly understood.  Completed his translation of the New Testament by 1522, the Old Testament by 1534.  Written in German, it sent a strong nationalistic message, similar to the The Address to the Christian Nobility. He said: ‘I aimed to make Moses so German that no one would suspect he was a Jew.  He translated St Paul’s words to support sola fide by adding ‘alone’ to the words ‘the just are save by faith’  200,000 sold between in 12 years. The Wittenberg press alone printed 100,000 copies. Hundreds of thousands more were printed during Luther’s lifetime. Appealing to the Towns and the literate: The Catechisms  Luther made and published many sermons based on the bible (or evangelical). More than 2300 have survived today. - 24 -   1529 He published his Large Catechism for adults and the Small Catechism for children. This set out the Lutheran faith in a question-and-answer format.  This was meant to be used in small groups and in the family, and allowed the tenets of Lutheranism to be spread in a widespread fashion especially amongst the literate populations to found in towns.  These catechisms followed inspectors reports of the churches in Saxony after 1526 where the practices of Lutheran churches were seen to be poor – e.g ignorant clergy, continuation of tradition almost pagan practices. Appealing to the illiterate peasants: Woodcuts, Hymns, German Mass  No more than 10% of the population of Germany could read  So Luther produced pamphlets (woodcuts) with images and no or very little text, as Luther said, “for the sake of the simple folk”.  Images included o Luther as a saintly monk with a dove above his head, on the title page of The Babylonish Captivity o Simplicity of the New Testament contrasted with the decadence of the papacy. o The Pope’s sale of indulgences contrasted with Christ throwing moneylenders of the temple.  Historian Robert Scribner described these woodcuts as ‘Like homemade gin – crude, cheap and effective’.  However, their simplicity meant that they could be misinterpreted especially the idea that this was revolutionary, that as well as rejecting the Pope, that the pamphlets endorsed rising up against others in such as the princes, which was not Luther’s intention.  He also produced his first collection of Hymns in 1524. He took folk songs he heard peasants singing and added lyrics to get across his Christian teachings. Spreading Lutheranism by preaching.  Lutheranism was an attractive creed. It offered o Convincing answers to theological issues that had long been problematic such as indulgences o Luther as a hero taking on the abuses of the church o The prospect of relief from the financial demands of greedy priests locally and of the Pope nationally.  Reformers would spread the word of Lutheranism through preaching and persuasion. If there was a disagreement then there would be an appeal to Luther  Example of Wittenberg, where reform, while Luther was in Wartburg Castle 1521-22, happened too rapidly with churches cleansed of images, priests married, monks encouraged to abandon their vows. However, there was violence, with rioting to intimidate those who objected. In 1522 Luther returned to convince the town that reform should happen more slowly. On the other hand, Luther was not completely successful at controlling his message, even after 1525 – the failure to compromise with Zwingli Zwingli Zwingli had ideas that were similar to Luther’s, but he is an example of a challenge to Luther’s idea about the Reformation. 1516 Zwingli reads Erasmus’ Greek New Testament 1518 Moves to Zurich and attacks indulgence sellers 1523 Zwingli makes a statement of his beliefs in his Sixty-Seven Theses 1524 Zwingli breaks his monastic vows and marries 1525 Zurich breaks with Rome 1529 Zurich, joined by Berne, attack the neighbouring Catholic areas in the First War of Kappel - 25 - 1529 Oct Marburg Colloquy: Zwingli defeats Luther in head to head debate concerning the Eucharist 1531 Second War of Kappel. Zwingli is killed trying to spread the Reformation to Catholic areas of Switzerland Similarity of beliefs with Luther Both believed in sola fide and ideas of salvation, and sola scriptura and the basis of their belief on the bible although there were differences over some practices such as no images and no music allowed during services. Disagreement over the Eucharist Both believed the Catholic Church’s teaching of the words in scripture of ‘hoc est corpus meum’ (transubstantiation – the transformation of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ) was wrong. But while Zwingli believed that that the ceremony in the mass was symbolic, Luther believed that that there was more significance. In the mass he argued that Christ’s body and blood were absorbed into, rather than replace, the bread and wine – known as the ‘real presence of Christ’ in a process called consubstantiation. The Marburg Colloquy In an attempt to get both Zwingli’s and Luther’s reformations to present a united front, Philip of Hesse persuaded both to meet, at Philip’s castle at Marburg in October 1529. While they could agree on 14 out of 15 theological points presented, they could be convinced of the other position on the Eucharist, nor accept the other as a ‘good Christian’. Zwingli’s more limited impact. The challenge to Luther’s leadership of the reformation was limited by a number of factors such as Zwingli’s less favourable base for the reformation on the edges of the German speaking world, Luther’s charisma and broad appeal, and importantly Zwingli’s early death in 1531. Also the bigamy scandal of Philip of Hesse (see below) is another example of how he was not totally in control of events or ideas. - 26 - Decline in Luther’s influence The spread of Lutheranism up to 1530 was only piece-meal  Only 7 princes went Lutheran by 1530  More success in Imperial towns – 20 out of 65 by 1520s, a further 30 by the 1540s.  The process in towns was haphazard involving a number of stages o Lutheran pamphlets o Preaching by Lutheran ministers o Disturbances by Catholic supporters or more conservative people o Civic authorities become involved e.g., a public disputation o Civic authorities reject Catholic authorities o Haphazard conversion to Lutheran practices – leading to a variety of implementations. o Example of Nuremberg, one of the largest Imperial cities, where there were signs that the elites were sympathetic early on, with a failure to enforce the Edict of Worms, ‘pulpit battles’ between reforming and more conservative preachers, pro-Lutheran publications such as Hans Sachs’ ‘The Wittenberg Nightingale’, a declaration in favour of Lutheranism to restore order against the backdrop of the Peasants’ Revolt in 1525 but then the slow adoption of Lutheran practices, only stopping confessions in 1533, or the Latin mass in 1545. Decline in Luther’s influence  Because of reasons outside Luther’s hands o The damage to his support by events such as the Knights’ and Peasants’ revolts o The Edict of Worms restricted Luther’s movements o Enforce absence in Wartburg in 1521-22.  Because of personal failings o His pamphlet against the Peasants’ revolt lost him support. o His failure to compromise with Zwingli and keep Protestantism united. o He produced little new work after his tremendous output in the 1520s. He confined himself to perfecting his translation of the Bible and on his university teaching. o The reputational damage over the bigamy of Philip of Hesse in 1540. Here he used scripture (saying bigamy was allowed in the Mosaic Law and not explicitly banned in the gospels) to find a justification for Philip of Hesse (a leading prince supporter of Luther) who wished to marry 17-year-old Margaret von der Staal while still married to his longstanding wife. Bigamy was still a capital offence, socially unacceptable and it caused a scandal. o In the 1540s Luther grew older and ill from kidney stones and arthritis and he became cantankerous and prone to embarrassing outbursts. Other more practical preachers took the lead Luther was not the only preacher or reformer. Other followers of Luther who were more practically minded were important in spreading Protestantism: Johannes Bugenhagen  1521 became convinced of the need for reform and moved to Wittenberg  1523 became town priest and Luther’s spiritual adviser.  Founded Protestant Churches across north Germany - 27 -  Established what became known as the Saxon model – with the prince of a territory or town council in charge as the ‘Magistrate’ or head of the church; helped by an ‘Ecclesiastical Council’ of advisers, who appointed a ‘Superintendent’ equivalent to a bishop to enforce high standards amongst the parish clergy and preachers.  This model was for a ‘state’ church and only worked with the support of the local leader.  He exported this model to eight north German states between 1528-43 and earned the nickname, ‘second apostle of the north’  1539 promoted to the post Superintendent of the Lutheran church in Saxony Philip Melanchthon  A vital figure in the spread of Lutheranism in Germany and Scandinavia.  Professor of Greek at the university of Wittenberg, a great scholar and thinker.  Helped Luther at the disputation in 1519 with Eck.  Helped Luther refine his ideas and in 1521 arguably wrote the first pure work on Protestantism called ‘Theological Topics’ or Loci Comunes. It brought together the fragmented ideas of Luther from many pamphlets into a single systematic statement of faith.  1530 drew up the Confession of Augsburg (since Luther could not attend the Diet himself) – it becomes the Lutheran statement of belief adopted by many cities and states that changed over.  He represented the Lutheran side in the debates over the draft document the ‘Regensburg Book’ in 1541 at the Colloquy of Regensburg in Charles V’s attempts to settle the differences in theology. - 28 - Other Political and Socio-Economic Factors that explain the spread of Lutheranism Socio-Economic Factors These include:  the economic situation in Europe and in Germany in particular  which made church taxes seem like an exploitation  cultural changes such as the concentration of cities in the HRE.  education shown in humanism and in the printing press  the appeal of Lutheranism to other different social groups from the princes to ordinary Germans. German Economy How important was the state of the economy in the 16th century and does it contribute to explaining why the Reformation happened in Germany? Economic pressures over the 16th and 17th centuries as a whole meant there were more poor to scapegoat:  Population pressure. De Vries estimates that throughout western Europe total population increased from 61 million in 1500 to 75 million by 1650. The largest increase was in Germany (12 million in 1500 to 15 million in 1550 or over 25% in this period).  Population increases led to an oversupply of labour and consequently lower wages especially in eastern Europe.  Population increases created a demand for food and resources. For example, wheat prices in England increased by 500%, in France by 700% over the 16th and 17th centuries.  Inflation eroded living standards – from 1530 prices started to rise steeply and wages rarely kept up.  Particular parts of Germany suffered from economic downturns: o The North German Baltic ports were in decline, partly from a decline in herring stocks in the Baltic and from a decline in trade – the Hanseatic League (an organisation of trading towns) went from an original number of 120 towns to 63 in 1557. o Peasants who made up 70% of the population experienced real hardship especially when there were poor harvests (1 in 4 harvests failed) which meant hunger and higher prices. o There was the pressure of rents as landlords increased their own incomes to match inflation. To the west of the River Elbe rents were increased and restrictions were place on peasants through the enclosure of land. To the east of the Elbe serfdom was reintroduced – harsher working conditions and restrictions on the movement of peasants.  There were 18 significant peasant revolts between 1500-1525, compared with the 21 revolts in the previous hundred years. o Urban workers’ wages suffered from inflation and pressures in towns led to the disadvantaged living in slums and tensions erupting in anti-Semitic pogroms.  Migrant poor had to be given help. e.g., as early as the 1520s cities began to supervise poor relief such as Nuremberg (1522), Strassburg (1523).  By 1558 47% of the population of Augsburg were too poor to pay taxes and 10 % received poor relief All these pressures made church taxes seem exploitative:  The ‘tithe’ was a tax of 10% of each parishioner’s income. - 29 -   ‘Annates’ was the first year’s income of a parish priest that had to be handed over to the pope.  Given how expensive a priest was any abuses by the church were resented On the other hand, there some sectors of the empire’s economy that were thriving:  The silver-mining areas of Saxony, Bohemia and the Tyrol successfully increased output fivefold in the 70 years to 1530. Until this was overtaken by silver from the New World, German’s mining industry provided most of Europe’s bullion and spurred a banking industry e.g. by 1515 Jakob Fugger the Rich of Augsburg had moved from being a silver miner to being an international banker, lending the money Charles needed for his election in 1519.  Trade boomed as the increases in population led to increased demands for food and consumer goods such as textiles in manufacturing sectors of towns like Augsburg and Munich. Trade boomed along the rivers of the empire – the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Wesser and Spee. The most successful cities were located on these rivers.  There were further improvements in trade through the construction of canals.  These more educated populations provided a key audience for Luther’s new ideas about religion. The Cities Far more cities converted than did princes and were key in the establishment of Protestantism. Of the 85 Imperial cities over 50 became Protestant. The cities were important because:  The Holy Roman Empire contained a relatively large number of cities. Whereas England had only one city of any size, namely London(with a population of around 100,000), the Holy roman Empire had several. Nuremberg, Augsburg and Hamburg all housed between 50,000 and 100,000 people, while Bremen, Lubeck and Magdeburg had between 20,000 and 50,000 inhabitants during the sixteenth century.  These cities not only provided a large and disproportionately literate population (about 20% by the 1520s), among whom the message could be spread, but they also contained universities and printing presses where the word of God could be translated and printed. Humanist groups were more likely to be found in cities.  Lutheran preachers spread the word among the majority who were illiterate such as Andreas Osiander in Nuremberg, and Geiler von Kaiserberg in Strasbourg. Woodcuts, images and illustrations were also produced to accompany the written word and to disseminate the message among as many as possible.  Cities such as Hamburg lay on internal and external trade routes, which allowed the message to spread widely among the merchant classes.  The experience of Nuremburg: o At Nuremberg the council was suspicious of the Reformation initially because it would place the town in opposition to the Emperor and damage trade. o By 1520, however, Luther’s pamphlets were circulating widely. o The appointment of the evangelicals Andreas Osiander and Dominikus Schleupner as preachers in the parish churches meant that by 1522 the broader mass of the population had become exposed to Luther’s teachings. o Following a debate in 1525, once it had been established that the reformers constituted the views of the majority of the community, the city changed. Historians’ views on why so many cities turned Protestant:  Bernd Moeller argued that the reformation was embraced by towns as a way to the reject outside influence of the Papacy and the Emperor. There was a social factor: ideas such as ‘priesthood of all believers’ allowed town communities to be more socially cohesive.  Steven Ozment argues that the reasons were religious; that justification by faith freed the cities from the psychological burden of good works.  Thomas Brady says that the reasons were class based, rather than social or religious. In his theory, ruling elites used the Reformation to protected their own interests and prevent popular protest, as he argues happens in Strasbourg. - 30 - Printing  Luther’s ideas were spread rapidly in part because they coincided with the widespread use of the printing press with the invention of movable type printing by Gutenberg in Mainz in 1453.  In the 60 years since literacy had grown to a rate of perhaps 20% in towns.  Because of the Reformation the output of books increased 6 or 7 times between 1518-24.  Between 1517-20 about 300,000 copies of Luther’s works were printed  It took only two weeks for the Ninety-Five Theses to get across Germany and Little over a month to reach Thomas More in London.  Luther’s publications shaped the new religion: 1523 his reformed Mass, the formula missae et communionis, 1526 his German Mass, the Deutsche Messe. He was able to keep control through authentically Lutheran texts, publishing hymns, a textbook of sermons, the Kirchenpostille, in 1529 his Small Catechism and Great Catechism. Political Factors These include  the role of the Princes  the weakness of Charles V  the failures of the Church to supress Luther The Role of Princes: (These following political factors, the princes and Charles, are important in the1520s but even more significant after 1530 and are dealt with more fully in section 4 of the notes) Frederick the Wise Following the Edict of Worms 1521 the protection of Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony was key to Luther’s survival and of his message. (even though Frederick dies in 1525 unconverted to Protestantism)  On the way back from Worms he was ‘kidnapped’ by Frederick the Wise’s forces and kept captive in Frederick’s castle of Wartburg.  Luther lived in the German state of electoral Saxony where the Pope’s direct influence was minimal.  As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick was powerful and influential. He was someone whose cooperation the Emperor needed.  It was Frederick who had persuaded Charles to allow Luther to argue his case at Worms.  Frederick did not carry out the Edict in Saxony  He was a skilled politician. He was always careful to keep his options open, he suggested alternatives rather than just refuse the Emperor. He suggested that the issue should be decided at a council of the German Church. A good tactic as a German council had been called in the past and ignored by the Italian dominated Catholic church. Frederick also presented himself as being reasonable, maintaining that his aim was the reform of abuses within the Church, not the establishment of an alternative organisation. Protestant Princes Princes embraced reform for a variety of reasons:  Some princes were committed Lutherans, such as Philip of Hesse (becoming Lutheran in 1526) or John of Saxony (1527) - 31 -   Some were pressurised by the local populace into adopting Lutheranism, such as the Archbishop of Mainz at Erfurt.  Others wished greater freedom from imperial authority, such as the Palatinate or Anhalt Dessau.  Moreover, the material benefits of reform could be great as the secularisation (taking away from the church) of church lands brought greater revenue and power, as shown by Albrecht of Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, the first prince to support Luther (1525) They came together to resist the Emperor:  Led by Philip of Hesse, the Lutherans formed the League of Torgau in 1526, which was intent on ensuring that the Edict of Worms (where Luther was confirmed as a heretic and his ideas outlawed in the empire) would not be enforced. Therefore, one can see a pattern emerging, which would hold for the next 20 years. o Imperial policy was to find a compromise and to restore unity, o Yet, in the meantime, the lack of central imperial control and absence of Charles V meant that the spread of Lutheranism could not be stopped. o An example of such delaying tactic that allowed Lutheranism to spread was at the Diet of Speyer, where it was declared that the Edict of Worms would be implemented as each prince thought right, and that any church land that had been taken over could be kept. Catholic Princes  The catholic princes who were Charles’ natural allies were divided and often gave only lukewarm support  It must be remembered that the Holy Roman Empire was not a strong centralised state like Spain or England and the Catholic princes were concerned about their own interests: o they were jealous about the right of any ruler to act in their own territory and there was the danger of an increase in the Emperor’s power o They suspected that any army used to restore the Catholic faith would then be used to impose Charles’s will on all the states of the Empire. The Weakness of Charles V  The powers of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire were weak: o He could summon a Diet or assembly whenever he wished, wherever he wished.  In practice he had limited powers o Since the Golden Bull of 1356, the position of Emperor was elected. Charles election had been dependent on the vote of the likes of Frederick the Wise; he had handed over 850,000 florins in bribes to secure his election. Electors such as Frederick had important ceremonial duties, powers to issue their own coin, and the right to make legal judgements without recourse to appeal to Imperial courts. o If a diet was called, the emperor had to defer to the electors. Also the princes dominated the votes in the diet and this could be used to frustrate the Emperor’s will, especially if the arch-chancellor of Germany could control the business of the meetings. o Electors and other powerful princes had in effect acquired sovereign authority in their own territories, and so had a desire to avoid imperial interference in their own territories. o The Emperor did not possess a standing army o There was no effective system of Imperial taxation. o There was no imperial capital.  Importantly the Empire was made of a fragmented collection of over 300 independent states, free towns and imperial cities which largely ran their own affairs. e.g. According to the Venetian ambassador in 1507, there were states led by, amongst others, 2 kings, 30 dukes, 4 landgraves, 20 abbots, 15 priors, and over 100 free cities.  This meant it was difficult for the Diet to reach any sort of agreement on important issues – and even more difficult to enforce its decisions if agreement was reached. - 32 -   Charles (Habsburg) possessed territories in the Holy Roman Empire that gave him prestige in the Empire such as the wealthy mining lands of the Tyrol, but he was also king of many different kingdoms: the Netherlands, Spain, Austria, kingdoms in Italy – Naples, Lombardy, and an empire in the Americas as well as Emperor of the Holy Roman Emperor – Charles had conflicting priorities. His periods of time away from the Empire – 1522-30, 1533- 42 coincide with his problems elsewhere. The lack of cooperation from the Papacy to help Charles come to a compromise with Lutheranism – SEE SECTION 4 - 33 - Was Luther a revolutionary? First it is a question of what is meant by revolutionary  On the one hand, his historic break with the Catholic Church would suggest that he made a revolutionary change.  On the other hand, there were others who were more radical in their religious teaching with whom Luther disagreed.  And in fact, in some (but not all ways) he could be seen as the opposite of revolutionary, as a long-term conservative. On the one hand, he was revolutionary  In the social and political implications of his Reformation o His appeal to ordinary people and his popular written style – in the 95 theses, in his use of woodcuts to reach the illiterate. o That his ideas inspired radicals and conflict that challenged the existing social and political order – the Knights and the Peasants. The tone of his writings suggested he was encouraging revolutionary action and a challenge of the existing order. o His failure to condemn the Knights’ War and damage to his reputation in the eyes of the princes.  But most obviously in his religious ideas, in the Reformation that he effects by 1520/21 o challenging the authority of the church, the papacy, and the emperor – events 1517-21 o His ideas of sola fide justified by understanding of the bible (sola scriptura), his challenging ideas on salvation, on the sacraments, on the ‘real presence’ o His ideas here could even be seen as radical – his humanist ideas of ‘ad fontes’ and returning to original texts, his translating of the New Testament of the bible in 1522 from the Greek in German (not Latin).  It seems obvious that he was revolutionary as he started the process that leads to conflict and division (wars up to 1555 etc), and the creation