Introduction to Anthropology & Sociology PDF

“The [written] history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle” – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (The Communist Manifesto) SSF 1044 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY & SOCIOLOGY STRATIFICATION & CLASS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION  Social stratification...

“The [written] history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle” – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (The Communist Manifesto) SSF 1044 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY & SOCIOLOGY STRATIFICATION & CLASS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION  Social stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy (represented by horizontal layers or strata) SOCIAL STRATIFICATION  Social stratification = structured inequalities between individuals and groups within human societies  Inequalities, not just in terms of ownership of property, but also on the basis of:  Gender  Race  Age  Religious affiliation, etc.  Individuals/groups enjoy unequal access to important advantages (economic resources or wealth, power, prestige…) based on their position within the stratification scheme, i.e. social inequality SOCIAL STRATIFICATION  Social stratification depends upon, but is not the same thing as, social differentiation – the process by which a society becomes increasingly specialised over time.  Some principles of stratification:  Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a function of individual differences.  Stratification is universal, but variable  Stratification involves not just inequality, but also beliefs (that justify stratification and inequality)  Social stratification persists over generations (WHY?)  But, sometimes there is social mobility SOCIAL MOBILITY  Social mobility is the movement from one social class to another within a class system  Types of social mobility  Horizontal – change in social situation that does not involve a change in social status  Vertical – change in social situation that involves a gain or loss in social status  Intragenerational – change in social situation that involves loss or gain of social status over the course of an individual’s lifetime  Intergenerational – change in social situation that involves loss or gain of social status relative to a previous generation OPEN VS CLOSED SYSTEMS  Open system - Where people can change their status with relative ease (i.e. there is social mobility)  Closed system - Where people can not change their status with relative ease THEORIES OF CLASS & STRATIFICATION Karl Marx Max Weber KARL MARX’S THEORY  Class = a group of people who stand in a common relationship to the means of production (by which they gain a livelihood)  Pre-industrial societies – 2 main classes  Those who own land (aristocrat)  Those actively engaged in producing from it (serfs, slaves, free peasants)  Modern industrial societies – 2 main classes  Capitalists  Working class  Relationship between classes is an exploitative one MAX WEBER’S THEORY  Took Marx’s approach, but Weber further modified and elaborated it.  Stratification is not just a matter of class (i.e. economic), but is shaped by two further aspects: status (i.e. social) and party (i.e. political)  Class divisions derive not only from control or lack of control over means of production, but from differences which have nothing to do with property. How do status and party influence stratification independently of class? IN SOCIOLOGY – 2 KINDS OF STATUSES  Ascribed statuses: social positions assigned on the basis of attributes people possess through no fault of their own  E.g. attributes acquired at birth – skin colour, sex, hair colour  Attributes that developed over time – wrinkles, baldness  The country one is born in  One’s ‘inherited’ religious affiliation  Achieved statuses: attained through some combination of personal choice, effort and ability  E.g. wealth, education, occupation SOCIAL PRESTIGE  Ascribed and achieved statuses – both hold social prestige  Social prestige – a level of respect or admiration for a status apart from any persons who happens to occupy it Example of prestige associated with a person’s occupation, level of education, income, race, sex, age etc? DISCUSSION: PRESTIGE/STATUS SYMBOLS  Make a list of a car brand, or clothing label, or phone brand, food type etc…. DISCUSSION: PRESTIGE/STATUS SYMBOLS List: …………………………  Then rank the list (highest to lowest status) DISCUSSION: PRESTIGE/STATUS SYMBOLS  Questions:  Where does the presumed value of the object come from? Does it relate to the actual cost of production? Or something more subjective?  Do people make judgements based on one’s consumption of the brand?  What are the positive and negative consequences of the ranking? Who benefits from the ranking, and who does not? 3 TYPES OF SOCIETIES SOME SOCIAL GROUPS HAVE GREATER ACCESS TO: Type of Economic Power Prestige society resources Egalitarian No No No Rank No No Yes Class/Caste Yes Yes Yes From Ember & Ember (1992: Table 11-1) EGALITARIAN SOCIETIES  Egalitarian does not mean that everybody in the society is equal  Differential prestige do exist!  There will always be differences in age and gender and in abilities / traits (skills, power, creativity, attractiveness, intelligence)  Egalitarian = within a given society, “there are as many positions of prestige in any given age-sex grade as there are persons capable of filling them” (Morton H. Fried, 1967)  There is equal access to prestige position for everyone. RANK SOCIETIES  Social groups have unequal access to prestige or status, but not significantly unequal access to economic resources or power.  Unequal access to prestige is often reflected in the position of chief  Position of chief is at least partially hereditary → only some members of a specified group in the society can succeed CASTE SOCIETIES  Caste system  A caste is a ranked group  Often associated with a certain occupation  Membership is determined at birth  Marriage is restricted to members of own class (endogamy)  Caste systems often limit social contacts between different groups  No class mobility – a closed class!  Powerful cultural beliefs underlie caste systems  Caste systems are typically associated with highly agrarian societies because of lifelong routines of agriculture depend on rigid sense of duty and disciplines CLASS SYSTEM  A system of social stratification in which people are ranked on the basis of achieved characteristics, such as merit, talent, ability or past performance What kind of status is associated with ‘class system’? Ascribed or achieved? How does this compare to caste system? CLASS SYSTEM  Class system is an ‘open system’  Characterised by high social mobility CLASS SYSTEM VS CASTE SYSTEM  3 distinguishing characteristics  The rigidity of the system, or how difficult it is for people to change their status  The relative importance of ascribed and achieved statuses in determining opportunities in life  The extent to which there are restrictions on interaction between people of unequal status HOW DO FUNCTIONALISTS, CONFLICT THEORISTS, SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS VIEW STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL INEQUALITIES? FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE  View on Stratification  Stratification is necessary for societal stability and efficiency. It ensures that the most qualified individuals fill the most important roles through a meritocratic system.  Justification for Inequality  Inequalities are functional because they motivate individuals to work harder and acquire skills necessary for fulfilling society's needs. Rewards (e.g., income, status) are distributed based on the value of one’s contribution to society. CONFLICT THEORIST PERSPECTIVE  View on Stratification  Stratification is a reflection of unequal power dynamics and exploitation, often perpetuated by those in power to maintain dominance.  Critique of Inequality  Social inequalities are inherently unjust and arise from the struggle between classes (e.g., bourgeoisie vs. proletariat, as per Marx). They maintain privilege for the elite while oppressing marginalized groups. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE  View on Stratification  Stratification and inequalities are constructed and maintained through daily interactions, symbols, and meanings that people attach to social roles and statuses.  Focus on Individual Experiences  Social inequality is experienced subjectively, influencing identity, self-perception, and interactions. For example, people may internalize societal labels of "success" or "failure" based on class.