LT3 Lithosphere Reviewer PDF

____________________________________________________________________________ 11J LT3 Lithosphere Reviewer Troy Fetiza “After all these years, finally i have them all” “It’s just like minecraft” “Haerin” LT1 Atmosphere Reviewer LT2 Hydrosphere Reviewer LT3 Lithosphere Reviewer LT4 "Red C...

____________________________________________________________________________ 11J LT3 Lithosphere Reviewer Troy Fetiza “After all these years, finally i have them all” “It’s just like minecraft” “Haerin” LT1 Atmosphere Reviewer LT2 Hydrosphere Reviewer LT3 Lithosphere Reviewer LT4 "Red Cross" Reviewer ____________________________________________________________________________ The Pedosphere The pedosphere is the thin outermost layer of the Earth that serves as the interface between the lithosphere (solid earth), atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and biosphere (living organisms). It is where the interactions between soil, plants, microorganisms, and climatic elements occur, making it crucial for the sustenance of life. ​ It can be referred to as the "living skin" of the Earth because of its dynamic nature, supporting biological activity and being continuously formed and eroded. ____________________________________________________________________________ What is Soil? ​ Soil is a complex and dynamic system composed of: ○​ Minerals: Inorganic materials derived from weathered rocks, which make up the bulk of the soil and provide essential nutrients for plant growth. ○​ Organic Matter: Decomposed plants and animals that improve soil fertility, structure, and water retention. ○​ Gases: Soil contains air spaces (pores) that allow oxygen to reach plant roots and aerobic organisms to thrive. ○​ Liquids: Water held within soil pores that is crucial for dissolving nutrients and supporting plant uptake. ○​ Organisms: A diverse community of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and earthworms, that contribute to soil health by decomposing organic material, cycling nutrients, and creating soil structure. ____________________________________________________________________________ Factors that Affect Soil Formation Soil formation is influenced by several factors that determine its properties and fertility: ​ Parent Material: The underlying geological material (bedrock or sediment) from which the soil is formed. Different types of parent material produce soils with varying mineral compositions. ​ Climate: Temperature and precipitation influence the rate of weathering and organic matter decomposition. Warm, moist climates accelerate soil formation, while cold or dry climates slow it down. ​ Topography: The slope and elevation of land affect water drainage and erosion. Soils on steep slopes may be thinner due to erosion, while flatter areas may have thicker soils. ​ Biological Factors: The presence of plants, animals, and microorganisms contributes to soil formation through processes such as root penetration, organic matter decomposition, and nutrient cycling. ​ Time: Soil formation is a slow process that occurs over long periods. Older soils tend to be more developed, with distinct layers (horizons) and greater nutrient content. ____________________________________________________________________________ Soil Production Soil production refers to the conversion of solid rock into soil, a process driven by weathering (both physical and chemical) and biological activity: ​ Weathering breaks down rocks into smaller particles, while biological activity (such as plant root growth and microbial action) adds organic matter to the soil. ​ The thickness of soil depends on the balance between soil production and the rate at which soil is transported downslope due to gravity and erosion. Factors that influence soil production include: ​ Slope: Steeper slopes have faster water runoff and erosion, leading to thinner soils. ​ Weathering Rate: Rocks that weather rapidly, such as those in moist or warm climates, produce soil more quickly than rocks in dry or cold environments. ____________________________________________________________________________ Soil Triangle The soil triangle is a diagram used by soil scientists to classify soil types based on the relative percentages of sand, silt, and clay: ​ Sand: The largest particles, allowing for good drainage but low water retention. ​ Silt: Medium-sized particles that retain more moisture and nutrients than sand. ​ Clay: The smallest particles, with high water retention and nutrient-holding capacity. However, too much clay can make the soil poorly drained and compacted. By using the soil triangle, you can determine whether soil is sandy, silty, clayey, or a loam (a balanced mix of sand, silt, and clay). Soil pores are spaces between soil particles, and their size affects the movement of air and water: ____________________________________________________________________________ Soil Horizons Soil is organized into horizontal layers, known as soil horizons, which differ in composition, texture, and color:A soil profile refers to the vertical sequence of horizons at a specific location, giving insight into the soil's development and suitability for various uses. ​ O Horizon (Organic Layer): Composed mostly of organic matter, such as decomposed leaves, plants, and animals (humus). ​ A Horizon (Topsoil): This layer consists of minerals with a mixture of organic material (humus), and it is where most root activity occurs. ​ E Horizon (Eluviation Layer): A zone of leaching, where materials such as organic matter, minerals, and nutrients are washed out of the soil, leaving it lighter in color. ​ B Horizon (Subsoil): This layer contains deposited minerals and metal salts that have leached from the upper layers. It is often denser and less fertile. ​ C Horizon (Parent Rock): Partly weathered rock that is the source material for the soil. It contains larger fragments of rock. ​ R Horizon (Bedrock): The unweathered rock layer that lies beneath all the other layers. This is solid rock and forms the base of the soil profile. ____________________________________________________________________________ Soil Conservation Practices ​ Contour Farming: Plowing along the contours of the land to reduce water runoff and minimize soil erosion on sloped terrain. ​ Strip Cropping: Alternating strips of different crops across a slope, which reduces soil erosion and helps retain soil moisture by slowing down water runoff. ​ Crop Rotation: Planting different crops sequentially in the same field to improve soil health, enhance nutrient balance, and reduce soil erosion. ​ Cover Cropping: Growing cover crops (such as legumes or grasses) to protect the soil from erosion, improve soil fertility, and enhance moisture retention. ​ Agroforestry: Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes to help protect the soil, improve biodiversity, and reduce erosion. ​ Grassed Waterways: Creating grass-covered channels that guide surface runoff, preventing soil erosion and maintaining water quality by reducing sediment flow into water bodies. ____________________________________________________________________________ Endogenic and Exogenic Movements: Endogenic Movements (Internal Forces): ​ Divided into: ○​ Diastrophic Movements (Slow): Refers to the deformation of the Earth's crust, which happens gradually over thousands of years. ​ Examples: Formation of mountains, continental movement. ○​ Catastrophism (Sudden):Happen rapidly and include events that cause immediate changes to the Earth's crust. ​ Examples: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions. ____________________________________________________________________________ Types of Diastrophic Movements: ​ Epeirogenic (Continent Forming): ○​ Upward movement: Lifting of the Earth's surface. ○​ Downward movement: Subsidence or sinking of the surface. ○​ Epeirogenic processes refer to the broad, gentle upwarping or downwarping of the Earth's crust, leading to changes in elevation over large areas without significant deformation. ​ Orogenic (Mountain Building): ○​ Tension: Pulling apart of the Earth's crust. ○​ Compression: Pushing together the crust to form mountains. ○​ Orogenic processes refer to the formation of mountain ranges through tectonic forces, particularly the collision and convergence of tectonic plates. ____________________________________________________________________________ Exogenic Movements (External Forces): ​ Divided into: ○​ Weathering: ​ Physical: Breakdown of rocks by temperature, pressure, etc. ​ Chemical: Decomposition of rocks through chemical reactions. ​ Biological: Breakdown caused by living organisms (plants, animals, etc.). ○​ Erosion: ​ Forces involved include glaciers, river water, waves, wind, and underground water (karst systems). ​ Erosion is a natural process that shapes landscapes and redistributes nutrients ____________________________________________________________________________ Tectonic Plate Boundaries: 1. Divergent Boundaries: ​ Motion: Plates move apart (spreading). ​ Effect: Constructive (new oceanic lithosphere is created). ​ Topography: Creates ridges or rifts. ​ Volcanic Activity: Yes. ​ Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge. ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Convergent Boundaries: ​ Motion: Plates move toward each other (subduction). ​ Effect: Destructive (oceanic lithosphere is destroyed). ​ Topography: Forms deep ocean trenches. ​ Volcanic Activity: Yes (volcanic arcs can form). ​ Example: The Andes Mountain range (subduction zone). ____________________________________________________________________________ 3. Transform Boundaries: ​ Motion: Plates slide past each other (lateral sliding). ​ Effect: Conservative (no new lithosphere is created or destroyed). ​ Topography: No significant topographic changes. ​ Volcanic Activity: No. ​ Example: San Andreas Fault in California. ____________________________________________________________________________ Mountain Formation (Fold Mountains): ​ Process: Fold mountains form when two tectonic plates push against each other. This happens mostly at convergent plate boundaries where both continental and oceanic plates collide. ​ Mechanism: The collision causes the layers of rocks and sediments in the Earth's crust to buckle and fold, creating mountain ranges. In some cases, oceanic crust subducts beneath the continental crust, leading to melting and volcanic activity. ​ Examples: The Himalayas are an example of fold mountains created from the collision between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate. ____________________________________________________________________________ Rift Valley Formation: ​ Process: Rift valleys form at divergent boundaries, where tectonic plates move away from each other. ​ Mechanism: As the plates move apart, magma from the mantle rises up, creating a rift. This process thins the crust and causes the land to sink, forming a valley. ​ Characteristics: Rift valleys often have volcanic activity associated with them due to the rising magma. Over time, the rifting can lead to the creation of new ocean basins. ​ Examples: The East African Rift Valley is a well-known example of this type of geological feature. ____________________________________________________________________________ Subduction and the Formation of the Philippines: ​ Process: The Philippines exists because of subduction—a process at convergent plate boundaries where one plate (usually oceanic) is forced beneath another plate (continental or oceanic). ​ Mechanism: In this case, the Philippine Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate, causing volcanic activity and the formation of island arcs like the Philippines. This is why the region is prone to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. ​ Examples: The subduction zone between these plates has formed the Philippine archipelago, and the continuous plate movement sustains volcanic activity and earthquake generation. ____________________________________________________________________________ Erosion Weathering: ​ The breaking down of rock. ​ Weathering agents include: ○​ Water ○​ Ice ○​ Wind ○​ Animals ○​ Growing Plants(roots) ​ Weathering is a crucial process that prepares rock material for erosion by breaking it into smaller pieces. It can occur through both physical processes and chemical reactions ____________________________________________________________________________ Erosion: ​ The movement of sediment from broken rock. ​ Erosion agents include: ○​ Water ○​ Wind ○​ Ice ○​ Gravity ​ Erosion transports weathered material from one location to another, reshaping landscapes over time. ____________________________________________________________________________ Deposition: ​ The dropping of sediment in a new place. ​ Examples of deposition: ○​ Formation of an island/deltas ○​ Sand dunes ​ Deposition occurs when the forces carrying sediment, such as wind or water, lose energy and can no longer transport material. This process creates new landforms, such as river deltas, beaches, and sand dunes, which are important habitats for various species. ____________________________________________________________________________ The Rock Cycle (Important) The rock cycle explains the processes by which the three main rock types—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary—change from one form to another. The formation and transformation of rocks are driven by Earth’s internal heat, tectonic pressure, and external forces like water, wind, gravity, and biological (including human) activities. These processes shape and move rocks, leading to their continuous recycling. The texture, structure, and composition of a rock provide clues about the environment in which it was formed, helping us understand Earth's geological history. ____________________________________________________________________________ Rocks Rocks are the solid parts of the Earth’s crust and come in a wide variety of types, shapes, and sizes. ​ They form the foundation of the Earth's surface and are critical to understanding geological processes. ​ Rocks are classified based on how they are formed, and each type has unique properties and uses. ____________________________________________________________________________ Minerals vs. Rocks Minerals and rocks are both essential components of the Earth's crust, but they differ in their composition, structure, and properties. Rocks: ​ Rocks are solid aggregates made up of one or more minerals or mineraloids. They do not have a definite chemical composition like minerals and are classified based on how they are formed ○​ igneous, ○​ sedimentary ○​ Metamorphic ____________________________________________________________________________ Minerals: ​ Minerals are: ○​ Naturally Occurring: Minerals form naturally in the Earth and are not man-made. ○​ Inorganic: They are not formed from living organisms. ○​ Solid: Minerals exist in a solid state at room temperature. ○​ Definite Chemical Composition: Each mineral has a specific chemical formula (e.g., quartz is SiO₂). ○​ Ordered Internal Structure: The atoms in minerals are arranged in a systematic, repeating pattern, forming crystals. ​ They are the basic building blocks of rocks. ____________________________________________________________________________ Types Of Rocks: Igneous Rock: ​ Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock, either from magma beneath the Earth’s surface or lava at the surface. This cooling process determines the texture and properties of the resulting rock. ____________________________________________________________________________ Types of Igneous Rock Formation: ​ Extrusive Igneous Rocks: Formed when lava cools quickly on the Earth's surface. ○​ Properties: ​ Cool rapidly, resulting in fine-grained or glassy textures. ​ Can be light and airy, like pumice, or have a smooth, glassy surface, like obsidian. ​ Intrusive Igneous Rocks: Formed when magma cools slowly beneath the Earth’s surface. ○​ Properties: ​ Cool slowly, allowing crystals to grow larger. ​ These rocks are often harder and show a range of colors due to the variety of minerals present. Granite is a common example. Examples of Igneous Rocks: ​ Extrusive Rocks: Basalt, obsidian, pumice. ​ Intrusive Rocks: Granite, diorite, gabbro. ____________________________________________________________________________ Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of eroded particles of minerals, rocks, and fossils. These particles, known as sediments, are carried by wind, water, or ice and eventually settle in layers through a process called deposition. Over time, the weight of additional layers compresses these sediments, a process known as compaction, followed by cementation, where dissolved minerals bind the sediments together to form solid rock. ​ Steps in Sedimentary Rock Formation: 1.​ Erosion: Particles are carried away by wind, water, or other forces from their source. 2.​ Deposition: Sediments settle out of water or air, typically in layers, in areas like riverbeds, lakes, or ocean floors. 3.​ Compaction: The layers of sediment are pressed together under the weight of overlying layers. 4.​ Cementation: Minerals dissolve in water, filling the gaps between compacted sediments, and eventually solidifying to form rock. Texture of Sedimentary Rocks: ​ Conglomerate: Coarse-grained rocks made from rounded gravel and pebbles. ​ Sandstone: Medium-grained rocks, primarily composed of sand-sized particles. ​ Siltstone: Fine-grained rocks composed of silt-sized particles. ​ Shale: Very fine-grained rocks made from clay or mud particles. 1.​ Clastic: Made from compacted broken rocks. ○​ Example: Sandstone. 2.​ Chemical: Formed from compacted dissolved minerals. ○​ Example: Limestone. 3.​ Organic: Formed from compacted biogenic matter (organic materials such as plants or animal remains). ○​ Example: Coal. ____________________________________________________________________________ Metamorphic Rocks Formation:​ Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks undergo transformation due to extreme heat and pressure deep within the Earth. This process is called metamorphism, and it alters the mineral composition, texture, and structure of the rock without melting it. Metamorphic rocks often form at the boundaries of tectonic plates, in the core of mountain ranges, or near magma chambers. ​ Key Factors in Metamorphism: ○​ Heat: High temperatures cause minerals within the rock to recrystallize. ○​ Pressure: Intense pressure from tectonic movements compresses the minerals, leading to a denser, more compact structure. Where Metamorphism Occurs: 1.​ Plate Collisions (Subduction Zones): Rocks are pushed deep into the Earth at convergent plate boundaries, where intense pressure and heat lead to metamorphic changes. 2.​ Core of Mountain Ranges: The immense pressure at the base of mountains causes rocks to metamorphose. 3.​ Near Magma Chambers: Heat from rising magma can cause surrounding rocks to undergo contact metamorphism. ____________________________________________________________________________ Types of Metamorphic Rocks: ​ Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These have distinct layers or bands due to the alignment of minerals under pressure. Examples include slate and schist. ​ Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: These do not have a layered texture, and their mineral grains grow and recrystallize without a preferred orientation. Examples include marble and quartzite. Examples of Metamorphic Rocks: ​ Slate: Formed from shale, used in roofing and flooring. ​ Marble: Formed from limestone, prized for sculpture and construction. ____________________________________________________________________________ Minerals: Minerals have the following characteristics: ​ Naturally Occurring: They form through natural geological processes. ​ Inorganic: They are not made by living organisms. ​ Solid: Minerals maintain a solid form under normal conditions. ​ Definite Chemical Composition: Each mineral has a specific chemical formula. ​ Ordered Internal Structure: Their atoms are arranged in an organized, repeating pattern (crystalline structure). Petroleum Petroleum, also known as crude oil, forms from the remains of ancient plants, animals, and marine sediments that have been subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years. These organic materials are buried deep within the Earth's crust and transform into hydrocarbons that make up oil. ​ Remains of Animals: Contribute to the formation of hydrocarbons. ​ Remains of Plants: Organic material from ancient plants plays a key role in oil formation. ​ Marine Sediments: Layers of sediment in ancient oceans help trap organic matter, aiding in petroleum formation. ____________________________________________________________________________ Mohs Hardness Scale The Mohs Hardness Scale is a ranking system that measures the hardness of minerals based on their ability to scratch or be scratched by other materials. The scale ranges from 1 (talc), the softest mineral, to 10 (diamond), the hardest known natural material. Each mineral can scratch those below it on the scale, making it a practical way to identify and compare minerals. Common objects like fingernails, copper pennies, and steel nails are often used as references for hardness comparison in everyday situations. ____________________________________________________________________________ Mineral Physical Properties Minerals are identified by several key physical properties: ​ Hardness: How resistant a mineral is to being scratched, measured on the Mohs Hardness Scale. ​ Shape: The external shape of a mineral, which is influenced by its internal crystal structure. ​ Luster: How a mineral reflects light; it can range from metallic to dull. ​ Color: The outward appearance of the mineral, although it can vary due to impurities. These properties help geologists and scientists identify and classify minerals effectively. ____________________________________________________________________________ Top 6 Minerals In The Ph Gold: With over 3 billion metric tons in reserves, gold is the most abundant mineral in the Philippines. It has been a significant export product, playing a vital role in the country’s economy. Copper: The Philippines holds approximately 2.97 billion metric tons of copper reserves. Copper is crucial in various industries, especially in electronics and construction. Nickel: The Philippines is also known for its large nickel reserves, totaling around 953 million metric tons. Nickel is essential for producing stainless steel and other industrial products. Uses For Rocks and Minerals Utensils: ​ Early humans used stone tools and utensils to aid in hunting and food preparation. These simple, yet effective tools were essential for survival. Houses: ​ Stone and other natural materials were used to build durable shelters. These early structures protected people from the elements and predators. Paving: ​ Stone paving was a significant development in ancient civilizations. It provided durable roads that improved transportation and communication. Jewelry: ​ Metals and precious stones were shaped into jewelry, symbolizing status and beauty throughout history. This craft dates back thousands of years. ____________________________________________________________________________ Mining What is Mining?: Mining is the process of extracting valuable resources from the ground, often involving various techniques to retrieve and process minerals for use. ____________________________________________________________________________ Common Types of Mining: The three main types of mining are strip mining, open-pit mining, and underground mining, each used to extract different resources from the Earth. Strip Mining: ​ Used to extract resources from horizontal beds of minerals, particularly in areas where the minerals are close to the surface. ​ Common in coal mining, where it accounts for 70% of the coal extracted. ​ There are two types: ○​ Area Strip Mining (for flat land) ○​ Contour Strip Mining (for hilly areas). Open-Pit Mining: ​ Involves digging large holes to remove ores and minerals. ​ Typically used for extracting iron, copper, gold, sand, gravel, and stone. ​ This method is particularly effective for minerals located near the surface but deeper than can be accessed by strip mining. Underground Mining: ​ Involves creating tunnels or shafts to reach mineral deposits deep within the Earth. ​ This method is necessary when minerals are located far below the surface and cannot be accessed via surface mining methods. ​ Underground mining is common in coal and metal extraction, such as gold. Each method is chosen based on the type and location of the minerals being extracted and the surrounding geological and environmental conditions. ____________________________________________________________________________ ​ Mining Salt: Salt, known as halite in its mineral form, is extracted from underground salt deposits, often found in sedimentary rocks. ​ Mining in the Philippines: The Philippines is rich in minerals, with the top three being gold, copper, and nickel, contributing to both local and global markets. ​ Ore: Ore is rock containing valuable minerals that can be mined and processed for profit, with the grade of the ore determining its metal content. ​ Most Mined Mineral: Coal Responsible Mining: Responsible mining considers the environment and local communities, ensuring that the extraction process is fair, safe, and sustainable for all stakeholders. Why are Fossil Fuels Still Used? ​ Established Infrastructure: Fossil fuels have a well-developed, widespread infrastructure, making them more accessible than renewables. ​ Energy Density: Fossil fuels provide more energy per unit, ideal for high-energy industries like transportation and manufacturing. ​ Reliability: Fossil fuels offer consistent, on-demand power, while renewables can be intermittent without sufficient storage solutions. ​ Economic Interests: Countries and industries reliant on fossil fuels have strong economic incentives to keep using them. ​ Transition Challenges: Switching to renewables is expensive and complex, requiring time, investment, and new technologies. ____________________________________________________________________________ Steno’s Laws of Stratigraphy: Describe the patterns in which rock layers are deposited. ​ Law of Superposition: In any sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks, the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the youngest are at the top. ​ Law of Original Horizontality: Layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position. If layers are tilted or folded, it indicates they were disturbed after deposition. ​ Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships: If a rock or fault cuts through another, the one being cut is older than the one doing the cutting. ​ Law of Lateral Continuity: Layers of rock extend horizontally in all directions until they thin out or encounter a physical barrier. ____________________________________________________________________________ Fossils Fossils are the preserved remains or imprints of ancient plants and animals, providing evidence of past life. They help scientists understand the history of life on Earth. Principle of Faunal Succession: ​ Organisms evolve over time and their fossils are preserved in a sequence in the rock layers, which allows us to determine the relative age of the rocks and correlate them across different areas. Fossils within a layer of rock can help date and understand geological changes. ____________________________________________________________________________ Types of Fossils: 1.​ Trace Fossils: Imprints of an organism's activities, such as footprints or burrows. 2.​ Mold Fossils: Impressions of an organism left in rock. 3.​ Body Fossils: Remains of an organism’s actual body parts, such as bones, teeth, or shells. ____________________________________________________________________________