Local Self Government and Livelihood - Notes PDF

Local Self Government and Livelihood - Notes Polity Copyright © 2014-2023 TestBook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Download Testbook App LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT AND LIVELIHO...

Local Self Government and Livelihood - Notes Polity Copyright © 2014-2023 TestBook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved  Download Testbook App LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT AND LIVELIHOOD Covered Chapter 4 Panchayati Raj(Class 6th) Chapter 5 Rural Administration(Class 6th) Chapter 6 Urban Administration(Class 6th) Chapter 7 Rural Livelihoods(Class 6th) Chapter 8 Urban Livelihoods(Class 6th) Local Self Government Local self-governments are institutions that administer a region or a small community, such as a village, town, or city. Local self-government is at the very bottom of society. It operates at the grassroots level, interacting with people in their daily lives. Local self-government is the administration of local issues by elected local bodies. These local bodies serve the local community while also serving as a democratic self- government tool. Do You Know? Lord Ripon was the one who gave Indians the first taste of freedom by introducing the Local Self Government in 1882. Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957): It recommended a three-tier Panchayati Raj system i.e. gram panchayat at village level (direct election), panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila Parishad at the district level (indirect election). Ashok Mehta Committee (1977-1978): It recommended a two-tier system and political parties should participate at all levels in the elections. G V K Rao Committee (1985): Appointed by the Planning Commission, the committee concluded that the developmental procedures were gradually being taken away from the local self-government institutions, resulting in a system comparable to ‘grass without roots’. L M Singhvi Committee (1986): 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992. Two- tier system and political parties should participate at all levels in the elections. P.K. Thungon Committee (1989):In 1989 the P.K.Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recognition for the local government bodies. 3rd Level of Administration SUBJECT | Polity 1 of 17  Download Testbook App There are three levels of local administration in India - central level, state level and local level. The central government rules over the whole country. India have 28 state governments besides the central government. Our country has a third level of administration. This is also known as local administration. Panchayati raj system in rural areas and nagar nigam (Municipal Corporation) and nagar palika (Municipality) in urban areas are examples of local administration. 73rd and 74th amendment in the constitution gave these institutions of local administration recognition of a constitutional institution in 1992. Nagar nigam is present in big and metro cities whereas nagar palika in small cities. These organizations work for road lights, water supply, cleanliness, education, maintaining parks etc. with others. Salient Features of the 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts (1992): Panchayats and Municipalities will be 'institutions of self-government'. Grama Sabhas (Villages) and Ward Committees (Municipalities) comprising. Three-tier system of panchayats at village, taluk and district levels. Seats at all levels filled by direct elections. Seats reserved for chairpersons of the Panchayats at all levels also shall be reserved in proportion to their population. One-third of the total number of seats reserved for women. Uniform five year term. Rural Administration Rural local government is popularly known as Panchayati Raj. It has several levels of administration such as Gram Sabha, Gram Panchayat, Janpad Panchayat (Panchayat Samiti) and District Panchayat (Zila parishad). Though the Panchayati Raj Institutions in most of the States have been set up at three levels, village, and intermediate and district levels. But in smaller States having a population of less than 20 lakh, there are only two tiers, the village level and the district level. 73rd constitutional amendment established tripolar structure of panchayati raj system in rural areas. SUBJECT | Polity 2 of 17  Download Testbook App Three Tier system of Panchayati Raj in India Three Levels of Panchayats: Panchayati Raj System is a process through which people participate in their own government. In rural areas, the Gram Panchayat is the first tier or level of democratic government. The Panchs and the Gram Panchayat are answerable to the Gram Sabha. It is the members of the Gram Sabha who elected them. The idea of people’s participation in the Panchayati Raj system extends to two other levels. One is the Block level, called the Janpad Panchayat or the Panchayat Samiti with many Gram Panchayats under it. Above the Panchayat Samiti is the District Panchayat or the Zila Parishad that actually makes developmental plans at the district level. With the help of Panchayat Samitis regulates the money distribution among all the Gram Panchayats. SUBJECT | Polity 3 of 17  Download Testbook App Each state in the country has its own laws with regard to Panchayats. The idea is to provide more and more space for people to participate and raise their voices. Gram Sabha: The Gram Sabha is a meeting of all adults who live in the area covered by a Panchayat (could be only one village or a few villages). In some states, the village meeting is held for each village. Anyone who is 18 years old or more with the right to vote is a member of the Gram Sabha. The Gram Sabha meeting often begins with the Panchayat President (who is also called the Sarpanch) and the members of the Panchayat (the Panchs) presenting a plan. Meetings of the Grama Sabha are conducted four times a year January 26 - Republic Day May 1 - Labourer Day August 15 - Independent Day October 2 - Gandhi Jayanthi Gram Panchayat: The Gram Panchayats or Village Panchayats are the local bodies of villages. They act as a link between the people and the government. Every village Panchayat is divided into wards, i.e. smaller areas. Each ward elects a representative who is known as the Ward Member (Panch). All the members of the Gram Sabha also elect a Sarpanch who is the Panchayat President. The Ward Panchs and the Sarpanch form the Gram Panchayat, which is elected for 5 years. The Gram Panchayat has a Secretary who is also the Secretary of the Gram Sabha, who is not an elected person but is appointed by the government and is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat and keeping a record of the proceedings. The Gram Sabha is a key factor in making the Gram Panchayat play its role and be responsible and it is where all plans for the work of the Gram Panchayat are placed before the people. The Gram Sabha prevents the Panchayat from doing wrong things like misusing money or favouring certain people and keeps an eye on the elected representatives and makes them responsible to the persons who elected them. All the members of each Gram Sabha are voters who elect the members of the Panchayat by a secret ballot. In most of the States, a Village Panchayat has 5 to 9 members who are called Panches. In every Panchayat, one-third of the seats are reserved for women. SUBJECT | Polity 4 of 17  Download Testbook App However, there are States where the percentage of seats reserved for women is even more. Seats are also reserved for persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The Sarpanch (Mukhia) of the Panchayat is directly elected by all the voters of the village. Some offices of Sarpanches are now reserved for women, and some for persons belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Sarpanch calls the meetings of the Panchayat and presides over those meetings. He/She is to call at least one meeting of the Panchayat per month. The Panches can also request him/her for calling a special meeting. He/She has to call such a special meeting within three days of the request. Sarpanch keeps the records of the meetings of Panchayat. The Panchayat can assign any special function to him/ her. A Vice Chairperson is elected by the members of the Panchayat. The tenure of the Village Panchayat is of 5 years The work of a Gram Panchayat includes: Supply of drinking water Maintenance of street lights Maintenance of roads Maintenance of village libraries Maintenance of small bridges Granting permission to the housing plots Maintenance of drainage Construction of group houses Cleaning of streets Maintenance of burial grounds Maintenance of common lavatory facilities Sources of funds for the Panchayat: Collection of taxes on houses, market places etc. Government scheme funds received through various departments of the government – through the Janpad and Zila Panchayats. Donations for community works etc. The Organisation and Functions of Panchayat Samiti: Composition: Panchayat Samiti is the intermediate or the middle tier of the Panchayati Raj System. These are named differently in different States. Its organisation and functions also vary as these are determined by the Act passed by the concerned State. It coordinates all the activities of the Panchayats in a Block. A Panchayat Samiti is constituted by the following members: SUBJECT | Polity 5 of 17  Download Testbook App All the Sarpanches (Mukhias) or Chairpersons of the Gram Panchayats within the Block MPs, MLAs and MLCs of that Block Some directly elected Members The elected Members of Zila Parishad from that Block Some Officers of that Block The term of each Panchayat Samiti is five years in all States. In its very first meeting, each Panchayat Samiti elects two of its members as Chairperson and Vice Chairperson. Chairpersonships of at least 1/3rd Panchayat Samities stand reserved for women members. Likewise, some of the offices of Chairperson are reserved for members belonging to Scheduled Castes. The tenure of the Chairperson is coterminous with the tenure of the Panchayat Samiti. The members of a Panchayat Samiti can remove the Chairperson by passing a resolution supported by 2/3rd majority. A Panchayat Samiti usually meets at least six times in one year. There cannot be a gap of more than two months between its two meetings. A meeting of Panchayat Samiti is either ordinary or special. The date of every meeting is fixed by the Chairperson of the Panchayat Samiti and in his/her absence by the Vice-Chairperson. Its chief administrative officer is Block Development Officer popularly known as BDO. Functions of Panchayat Samiti: Panchayat Samiti performs a number of functions. Some important functions are: agriculture, land improvement, watershed development, social and farm forestry and technical and vocational education. Besides, the Panchayat Samiti implements certain schemes and programmes for which specific funds are allocated by the State government or Central government. It promotes and coordinates different development programmes of its areas. It also has the responsibilities like Provision of drinking water in the villages, Development and repair of rural roads, Framing of rules and regulations for the markets, Provision of improved seeds and chemical fertilizers, pesticides, agricultural tools and implements, Promotion of cottage industries such as handlooms, handicrafts, traditional art and artisans, The welfare of Scheduled Castes and Tribes and other backward classes, and Promotion of the self-employment schemes in the rural areas. Sources of Income: The main source of income of Panchayat Samiti is the Grants given by the State government. Besides, it also levies taxes, levies and SUBJECT | Polity 6 of 17  Download Testbook App receives a fixed percentage of land revenue. The Organisation and Functions of Zila Parishad: Composition: Zila Parishad is at the apex, being the third tier of Panchayati Raj System. It is situated at the district level. Zila Parishad also has a term of 5 years. Some of its members are directly elected and the Chairpersons of the Panchayat Samitis are ex- officio members. MPs and MLAs belonging to the district are also the members of Zila Parishad. Chairperson of the Zila Parishad is elected from the directly elected members. Not less than 1/3rd of the offices and seats are reserved for the women members. Seats are also reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Functions of the Zila Parishad: The following are the major functions of the Zila Parishad, though you may find some variations across the States: Providing essential services and facilities to the rural population, planning and executing the development programmes for the district; Supplying improved seeds to farmers, informing them of new techniques of farming, undertaking construction of small-scale irrigation projects and percolation tanks, and maintaining pastures and grazing lands; Setting up and running schools in villages, executing programmes for adult literacy, and running libraries; Starting Primary Health Centers and hospitals in villages, managing mobile hospitals for hamlets, conducting vaccination drives against epidemics and family welfare campaigns; Executing plans for the development of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, running an ashram for adivasi children, and setting up free hostels for scheduled caste students; Encouraging entrepreneurs to start small scale industries like cottage industries, handicrafts, agriculture products, processing mills, dairy farms, etc., and implementing rural employment schemes; and Constructing roads, schools and also taking care of the public properties; Sources of Income of Zila Parshad: As you have seen, the Zila Parishad performs a number of important functions. To perform them it needs money. This is arranged through its sources of income that are as follows: Income from taxes levied by Zila Parishad, license fees and market fees; A share is given to Zila Parishad from the collected land revenue; SUBJECT | Polity 7 of 17  Download Testbook App Income from various properties of Zila Parishad; Grants from the State and Central governments; and Funds allotted by the State for developmental activities Rural Livelihood People in rural areas earn their living in various ways. They undertake farming or non- farming activities. However, some people do not find work to keep them employed throughout the year. People in villages are involved in different professions such as blacksmiths, teachers, washermen, weavers, barbers, mechanics, shopkeepers and traders. Farming and collection of mahua, tendu leaves, honey, etc. from the forest are the important sources of livelihood. Working on farms involves operations such as preparing the land, sowing, weeding and harvesting of crops. Farmers borrow money to fulfil the basic needs of the farming land. Sometimes, they are unable to return the loan due to the failure of monsoon, which results in debt and finally the major cause of distress. In India, nearly two out of every five rural families are agricultural labourer families. The members of these families usually work on other people’s fields to earn a living. In India, 80 percent of farmers belong to this group. Only 20 percent of India’s farmers are well-off. Many people in rural areas depend upon collection from the forest, animal husbandry, dairy produce, fishing etc. Terrace Farming in Nagaland This is a village called Chizami which is in Phek district in Nagaland. The people of this village belong to the Chakhesang community. They do ‘terrace’ cultivation. This means that the land on a hill slope is made into flat plots and carved out in steps. The sides of each plot are raised in order to retain water. This allows water to stand in the field, which is best for rice cultivation. The people of Chizami have their own individual fields. But, they also work collectively in each other’s fields. They form groups of six or eight and take an entire mountainside to clean the weeds on it. Each group eats together once their work for the day is over. This goes on for several days until the work is completed. Main Occupations Agriculture: The primary occupation in rural areas. Most rural families rely on agriculture for their livelihood, either as small-scale farmers, large landowners, or agricultural labourers. Craftsmanship and Artisanship: In some regions, families are involved in craft, such as pottery, basket weaving, and other traditional crafts. SUBJECT | Polity 8 of 17  Download Testbook App Animal Husbandry: Includes the rearing of animals for milk, meat, wool, and other products. Economic Challenges Dependence on Monsoon: Agricultural activities in many parts of rural India heavily depend on monsoon rains. Lack of Infrastructure: Poor infrastructure like roads, electricity, and irrigation facilities can hinder economic development. Land Ownership Issues: Small landholdings, fragmentation of land, and landlessness are significant challenges. Social Structures Rural societies often have deep-rooted social hierarchies that affect people's access to resources and opportunities. Caste and gender can play significant roles in determining one's occupation and social status. Government Interventions Various government schemes aim to support rural livelihoods, such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), which guarantees 100 days of wage-employment per year to a rural household. Subsidies and support for farming, including loans, seeds, and fertilizers. Case Studies Case Study of Kalpattu Village (Fictitious): Provides insights into the life of farmers, the distribution of land, and the interaction between different members of the community. Discusses the seasonal nature of agricultural work and the way villagers manage their finances and resources throughout the year. Impact of Urbanization Migration from rural to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities. Changes in rural landscapes and economies due to proximity to cities and towns. Maintenance of Land Records Measuring the land and maintaining the records is the main work of the Patwari- known by different names in different states. In some villages, such officers are called Lekhpal- SUBJECT | Polity 9 of 17  Download Testbook App Kanungo or Karamchari or Village Officer and so on. Each Patwari is responsible for a group of villages and maintains and updates the records of the village. It has ways of measuring agricultural fields. In some places, a long chain is used. Patwari is responsible for organising the collection of land revenue from the farmers and provides information to the government about the crops grown in this area. These are done from the records that are kept. So, it’s important for the Patwari to regularly update these as farmers may change the crop they grow or someone may dig a well somewhere. Revenue department of the government keeps track of all this. Senior people in this department supervise the Patwari’s work. Every state in India is divided into districts for managing matters relating to land, these districts are further subdivided. These subdivisions of a district are known by different names such as tehsil, taluka and so on. At the head is the District Collector who has revenue officers, also known as tehsildars under them to hear disputes and supervise the work of the Patwaris. They ensure that records are properly kept and land revenue is collected. They also make sure that the farmers can easily obtain a copy of their record and students can obtain their caste certificates and more. Tehsildar’s office is where land disputes are also heard. Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005 1. As per the new law, sons, daughters and their mothers get an equal share in the land and the same law applies to all states and union territories of the country. This law will benefit a large number of women. Urban Administration As Gram Panchayat is for rural areas, similarly we have Municipalities for urban areas. It was during British colonial rule that the first urban local government came into existence in 1688 when a Municipal Corporation was formed in the city of Madras (now known as Chennai). Later on, similar bodies were formed for the administration at Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai). After independence four types of urban local bodies were functioning: Municipal Corporations, Municipalities, Town Area Committees and Notified Area Committees. But the 74th Constitutional Amendment 1992 brought about major changes in the system of urban local government. Now three types of urban local governments are functioning: Municipal Corporations for the big cities, SUBJECT | Polity 10 of 17  Download Testbook App Municipal Councils for smaller cities and Nagar Panchayats for those areas that are in transition from rural areas to urban areas. The 74th Constitutional Amendment 1992: As stated above, the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act 1992 brought about significant changes in the structure and functioning of urban local government. The following points are noteworthy: Constitution of urban local bodies (namely, Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, and Nagar Panchayat) in every Indian State; Constitution of Wards Committees within the territorial area of a municipality, to ensure people’s participation in civic affairs at the grass-root level; Regular and fair conduct of municipal elections by State Election Commissions; Provision for supersession of municipal governments for not more than 6 months; Adequate representation of weaker sections (i.e., Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Classes) of the society and women in municipal governments through reservation of seats; Specification by law, through the State Legislatures, of the powers (including financial) and functional responsibilities to be entrusted to municipalities and wards committees; constitution of State Finance Commissions, once in every 5 years, to review the financial position of municipalities and to make recommendations on the measures needed to improve their financial position; and Constitution of a District Planning Committee at the district level and a Metropolitan Planning Committee in metropolitan areas of every State, for the preparation and consolidation of development plans. Municipality and Nagar Panchayat: The area where more than 1,00,000 people live is called a Municipality while an urban centre with more than 30,000 and less than 100,000 inhabitants has a Nagar Panchayat. However, there are some exceptions. All the previous Town Area Committees (urban centres with a total population of more than 5,000 and less than 20,000) are designated as Nagar Panchayats. It is composed of a Chairperson and Ward Members. It may have a minimum of ten elected Ward Members and three nominated Members. Like other municipal bodies, Nagar Panchayat is responsible for Cleanliness and disposal of garbage; Supply of drinking water; Maintenance of public amenities like street lights, parking space and public conveniences; SUBJECT | Polity 11 of 17  Download Testbook App Setting up and maintaining fire services; and Registration of deaths and births. Its sources of income are: Taxes such as house tax, water tax, toll tax; Licence fees and fee for approving building plans; Rents collected by renting Barat Ghars and other properties; and Grant-in- Aid from the State government. The Members and the Chairman of the Municipalities are directly elected by the people and their term of office is five years. A Municipal Commissioner is appointed by the government to administer the Municipality. Municipal Council: It is an Administrative Department in the cities. It supervises the Division of work in different departments. It includes the Departments of water, garbage collection, construction of roads, sanitation, etc. Composition: Cities which do not have a very large population have Municipalities known as Municipal Councils to look after the local cities, their problems and development work. After the 74th Amendment, the constitution of Municipalities is obligatory for every concerned city. Every Municipal Council has Councilors who are elected by the adult voters of the city for 5 years. Only those persons can be elected as Councillors who fulfil the conditions laid down by the State Election Commission. If in any case, the Municipal Council gets dissolved before completing the full term of 5 years, the elections for a new Municipal Council will have to be held within six months. Chairperson or President of the Municipal Council is elected by the Councilors from among the elected members. Chairperson holds the office till he/ she enjoys the confidence of the majority of the elected members. Every Municipal Council has an Executive Officer who is appointed by the State government. He/ She looks after the day-to-day work and also the administration. The Health Officer, Tax Superintendent, Civil Engineer are the other important officers. Functions of the Municipal Council: Functions of the Municipal Council are as follows: Health and Sanitation - Managing cleanliness of the town, disposal of garbage, prevention of sale of unhygienic and adulterated food items, and maintenance of dispensaries or hospitals; Electricity and Water Supply - Ensuring supply of electricity and safe drinking water, maintaining water tanks and also water tankers; SUBJECT | Polity 12 of 17  Download Testbook App Education - Maintaining and running of primary schools and literacy centres. Birth and Death Records - Keeping the records regarding registration of birth and deaths in the city/town and also issuing the certificates for the same; Public Works - Paving of streets, repairing and maintenance of municipal roads, construction and maintenance of Barat Ghars, Community Halls, Markets, Public facilities etc. Sources of Income: No work can be done without money. Municipal Councils have got different sources of income. These sources can be grouped as under: Taxes: Taxes on properties, vehicles, entertainment and advertisement; Rents and fees/charges: Charges for water supply, sewer system; Licence fees, Rents of the community Halls, Barat Ghars and Shops etc.; Grants: Grants from the State government; Fines: Fines from the tax offenders, law breakers, on encroachments etc. Municipal Corporation: Municipal corporations are established in big cities where the city has many lakhs of population. The Municipal Commissioner is the Administrative Officer. The Mayor is the Chairman of the corporation. The term of office of the Mayor and other members is five years. Composition: Municipal Corporations are established in big cities according to the provisions made in the Acts enacted by the State Legislatures. The Councillors of Municipal Corporations are elected for 5 years. The elected Councillors elect one of them as Mayor annually. The Mayor is known as the first citizen of the city. The 74th Constitutional Amendment has provided for reservation of not less than 1/3rd of the total seats for women. There is also a provision of reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections in proportion to their population. Out of these reserved seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, one-third would be reserved for women belonging to these communities. In the event of dissolution of Municipal Corporation, the elections will be held within six months. There is an official post of Municipal Commissioner, who is the Chief Executive Officer and is appointed by the State government. In the case of Union Territories like Delhi it is done by the Central government. Functions of the Municipal Corporations: The main functions of the Municipal Corporation are as follows: Health and Sanitation: Responsible for cleanliness of the city, disposal of garbage; maintenance of hospitals and dispensaries; promoting and conducting vaccination SUBJECT | Polity 13 of 17  Download Testbook App drives; checking of adulteration etc. Electricity and Water Supply: Provision and maintenance of street lights, supply of electricity, supply of safe drinking water; construction of infrastructure and providing facilities for water supply, maintenance of water tankers etc. Educational: Establishment of primary schools, provision of mid-day meals and other facilities for the children. Public Works: Construction, maintenance and naming of roads; framing rules for the constructions of houses, markets, restaurants and hotels; removal of encroachments and demolition of dangerous buildings. Miscellaneous Functions: Maintaining record of Births & Deaths; provision and maintenance of cremation grounds/burial grounds, night shelters; making arrangements of scooter & taxi stands and public facilities. Sources of Income of Municipal Corporation: Like Panchayati Raj System, Municipal System also requires funds for the development and welfare activities in its area. Provision is made in the Municipal Act for generating the required funds. Some of the sources of income are as follows: Income from taxes: Municipal Corporation imposes taxes on various items such as – house tax, entertainment tax, tax on hoardings and advertisements, registration fees, tax on building plans etc. Other fees and charges: These include water supply charges, electricity charges, sewer charges, license fee from shopkeepers, and toll tax and octroi duty. Grants-in-Aid: State government and Union government provide grants-in-aid for various projects and programmes related to development. Income from Rents: Corporations rent out the properties and get rent for various shops, kiosks, community centres, Barat Ghars and various sites for fairs, marriages or other exhibitions. The Ward Councillor: The Ward Councillors are responsible for the construction of hospitals. They are elected by the people living in that ward/area. Groups of Councillors make decisions on policy- making. Committees of Ward Councillors look after water, garbage collection and street lighting. The duties of the Ward Councillors are as follows: Ward Councillors make the budget. They look into the demands of their respective Wards. They assign the task of implementation to the administrative staff. Administrative Staff: Ward people can approach Ward Councillors regarding their problems, within a Ward. Members of the Councillor Committees decide on various issues. The Commissioner and the administrative staff not only implement the issues. SUBJECT | Polity 14 of 17  Download Testbook App Please note that the Commissioners are appointed people while the Ward Councillors are elected. Community Protest: Ward Community can submit its petition to the Ward Councillor. Then a collective action taken is by the Ward Engineer and Ward Council. The petitions are forwarded to the Municipal Corporation Office and the Municipal Corporation solves the issues. Types of other Urban Panchayats Notified Area Committee Town Area Committee Cantonment Board Township Port Trust Special Purpose Agency Urban Livelihood People of urban areas are engaged in different activities. Some are rickshaw pullers, some are vendors, some are business persons, some are shopkeepers, etc. These people work on their own. They are not employed by anyone. There are almost one crore street vendors in the country working in urban areas. In the urban market one can find a variety of shops such as shops selling sweets, toys, clothes, footwear, utensils, etc. There are garment showrooms too. There are several business persons in the market who manage their own shops or business. They are not employed by anyone. But they do employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers. The urban market has small offices and shops that provide services, such as banks, courier services and others. A number of daily wage laborers can be found in the city. They work as helpers to mansions. Several urban people are engaged in factories, such as garment factories. In garment factories most workers are usually employed on a casual basis. They are required to come as and when the employer needs them. Jobs on a casual basis are not permanent. There is no job security. Workers are expected to work very long hours. They do not get any facilities. Types of Employment Formal Sector: Involves jobs that are more secure and come with benefits like pensions, paid leave, and regular salaries. Examples include government jobs and positions in large SUBJECT | Polity 15 of 17  Download Testbook App private companies. Informal Sector: Consists of jobs that do not have any security. People in this sector may work as street vendors, rickshaw pullers, or domestic workers. They do not get regular salaries, paid leave, or other benefits. Case Studies and Examples Vishal: A case study of a boy named Vishal, who lives in a city and helps his family understand the diversity in urban employment. Vishal's family members work in different sectors, illustrating the precarious nature of urban employment. Street Vendors: The chapter discusses the life of street vendors who sell goods on the pavement and their daily struggle to secure a spot, deal with municipal authorities, and manage their small earnings. Domestic Workers: It covers the lives of domestic workers who work in multiple houses to earn a living. Their challenges include long hours, low pay, and lack of job security. Challenges in Urban Employment Job Security: Many workers in cities do not have job security. They can lose their jobs easily and may not find new ones quickly. Living Conditions: Poor living conditions are common among people working in low- paying jobs. They may live in slums or overcrowded areas. Health Risks: Workers in the informal sector often face health issues due to poor working conditions and lack of access to healthcare. Legal and Social Protection: There is a significant lack of legal and social protection for workers in the informal sector. They often have no protection against exploitation or job loss. Government and Non-Government Efforts The chapter briefly discusses the role of government and non-governmental organisations in helping urban workers, such as laws regulating street vending and initiatives to provide healthcare. An experiment in Brazil A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has carried out an extraordinary experiment in combining decentralisation with participative democracy. The city has set up a parallel organisation operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local inhabitants to take real decisions for their city. The nearly 13 lakh people in this city get to participate in making the budget for their own city. The city is divided into many sectors or what we call wards. Each sector has a meeting, like that of the gram sabha, in which anyone living in that area can participate. SUBJECT | Polity 16 of 17  Download Testbook App There are some meetings to discuss issues that affect the entire city. Any citizen of the city can participate in those meetings. The budget of the city is discussed in these meetings. The proposals are put to the municipality that takes a final decision about it. About 20,000 people participate in this decision making exercise every year. This method has ensured that the money cannot be spent only for the benefit of the colonies where rich people live. Buses now run to the poor colonies and builders cannot evict slum- dwellers without resettling them. In our own country, a similar experiment has taken place in some areas in Kerala. Ordinary people have participated in making a plan for the development of their locality. Problems and Challenges facing the Local Self Governments Local self-governments are the crucial basis for our democracy. The Constitutional status of local self-governments adds more significance to their functioning. There are, however, a few critical concerns in the working of local self-governments in India. Major problems and challenges may be mentioned as below: Lack of clear demarcation of powers and functions of local bodies Allocation of funds and needs assessment are not matched Role of caste, class and religion in decision-making at the local self-governments Poor accountability of elected members and officials at the grassroot levels of democracy. SUBJECT | Polity 17 of 17