Literary Movements for Students (PDF)

 LITERARY MOVEMENTS for Students  LITERARY MOVEMENTS for Students Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Literary Movements SECOND EDITION  Literary Movements for Students, Second ª 2009 Gale, Cengage Learning Edition...

 LITERARY MOVEMENTS for Students  LITERARY MOVEMENTS for Students Presenting Analysis, Context, and Criticism on Literary Movements SECOND EDITION  Literary Movements for Students, Second ª 2009 Gale, Cengage Learning Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be Project Editor: Ira Mark Milne reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, Rights Acquisition and Management: Jennifer scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information Altschul, Mollika Basu, Leitha Etheridge-Sims, storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 Barb McNeil United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09  Table of Contents Volume 1 NOVELS THAT INCLUDE THE NAMES OF FRENCH SOUPS.......... xi (by Chris Semansky) INTRODUCTION......... xiii LITERARY CHRONOLOGY...... xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....... xxxiii CONTRIBUTORS........ xxxvii ABSURDISM............ 1 Representative Authors...... 2 Representative Works....... 5 Themes............ 8 Style............. 9 Movement Variations....... 10 Historical Context........ 11 Critical Overview......... 12 Criticism............ 13 Sources............ 27 Further Reading......... 28 BEAT MOVEMENT.......... 29 Representative Authors....... 30 Representative Works....... 33 Themes............ 36 Style............. 37 v  T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Movement Variations....... 38 ENLIGHTENMENT......... 185 Historical Context........ 40 Representative Authors...... 186 Critical Overview......... 42 Representative Works...... 188 Criticism............ 43 Themes........... 191 Sources............ 62 Style............ 192 Further Reading......... 62 Movement Variations...... 193 Historical Context....... 193 BILDUNGSROMAN.......... 64 Critical Overview........ 196 Representative Authors....... 65 Criticism........... 197 Representative Works....... 67 Sources........... 220 Further Reading........ 220 Themes............ 69 Style............. 71 Movement Variations....... 71 EXISTENTIALISM......... 222 Historical Context........ 72 Representative Authors...... 223 Critical Overview......... 74 Representative Works...... 225 Criticism............ 75 Themes........... 228 Sources............ 95 Style............ 230 Further Reading......... 95 Movement Variations...... 232 Historical Context....... 233 CLASSICISM............ 97 Critical Overview........ 235 Representative Authors....... 98 Criticism........... 237 Representative Works...... 101 Sources........... 251 Themes........... 103 Further Reading........ 251 Style............ 104 Movement Variations...... 105 EXPRESSIONISM......... 253 Historical Context....... 106 Representative Authors...... 254 Critical Overview........ 107 Representative Works...... 256 Criticism........... 108 Themes........... 258 Sources........... 120 Style............ 260 Further Reading........ 121 Movement Variations...... 260 Historical Context....... 261 COLONIALISM.......... 122 Critical Overview........ 263 Representative Authors...... 123 Criticism........... 264 Representative Works...... 125 Sources........... 279 Themes........... 129 Further Reading........ 279 Style............ 131 Movement Variations...... 132 GOTHIC LITERATURE....... 281 Historical Context....... 133 Representative Authors...... 282 Critical Overview........ 135 Representative Works...... 285 Criticism........... 136 Themes........... 288 Sources........... 151 Style............ 290 Further Reading........ 151 Movement Variations...... 291 Historical Context....... 293 ELIZABETHAN DRAMA....... 153 Critical Overview........ 294 Representative Authors...... 154 Criticism........... 296 Representative Works...... 157 Sources........... 307 Themes........... 159 Further Reading........ 308 Style............ 161 Movement Variations...... 162 GREEK DRAMA.......... 310 Historical Context....... 164 Representative Authors...... 311 Critical Overview........ 165 Representative Works...... 313 Criticism........... 167 Themes........... 315 Sources........... 183 Style............ 317 Further Reading........ 183 Movement Variations...... 319 v i L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Historical Context....... 320 MEDIEVAL MYSTICS........ 466 Critical Overview........ 322 Representative Authors...... 467 Criticism........... 323 Representative Works...... 469 Sources........... 334 Themes........... 472 Further Reading........ 334 Style............ 474 Movement Variations...... 476 HARLEM RENAISSANCE....... 335 Historical Context....... 477 Representative Authors...... 336 Critical Overview........ 479 Representative Works...... 339 Criticism........... 481 Themes........... 341 Sources........... 492 Style............ 343 Further Reading........ 493 Movement Variations...... 344 Historical Context....... 345 MODERNISM.......... 494 Critical Overview........ 347 Representative Authors...... 495 Criticism........... 349 Representative Works...... 498 Sources........... 372 Themes........... 501 Further Reading........ 372 Style............ 504 Movement Variations...... 505 HUMANISM........... 374 Historical Context....... 506 Representative Authors...... 375 Critical Overview........ 508 Representative Works...... 378 Criticism........... 510 Themes........... 379 Sources........... 533 Style............ 381 Further Reading........ 533 Movement Variations...... 382 Historical Context....... 384 NATURALISM.......... 534 Critical Overview........ 386 Representative Authors...... 535 Criticism........... 387 Representative Works...... 537 Sources........... 403 Themes........... 539 Further Reading........ 403 Style............ 541 Movement Variations...... 541 IMAGISM............ 405 Historical Context....... 542 Representative Authors...... 406 Critical Overview........ 543 Representative Works...... 408 Criticism........... 544 Themes........... 411 Sources........... 554 Style............ 414 Further Reading........ 554 Movement Variations...... 415 Historical Context....... 416 NEOCLASSICISM......... 556 Critical Overview........ 417 Criticism........... 418 Representative Authors...... 557 Sources........... 434 Representative Works...... 560 Further Reading........ 435 Themes........... 562 Style............ 563 Movement Variations...... 564 Volume 2 Historical Context....... 565 Critical Overview........ 567 MAGIC REALISM......... 437 Criticism........... 568 Representative Authors...... 438 Sources........... 592 Representative Works...... 440 Further Reading........ 592 Themes........... 443 Style............ 445 POSTCOLONIALISM........ 593 Movement Variations...... 446 Historical Context....... 447 Representative Authors...... 594 Critical Overview........ 449 Representative Works...... 597 Criticism........... 450 Themes........... 599 Sources........... 464 Style............ 601 Further Reading........ 465 Movement Variations...... 601 L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 v i i  T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Historical Context....... 603 SCIENCE FICTION AND FANTASY Critical Overview........ 604 LITERATURE.......... 744 Criticism........... 605 Representative Authors...... 745 Sources........... 613 Representative Works...... 747 Further Reading........ 614 Themes........... 750 Style............ 752 POSTMODERNISM......... 615 Movement Variations...... 753 Representative Authors...... 616 Historical Context....... 754 Representative Works...... 619 Critical Overview........ 755 Themes........... 622 Criticism........... 757 Style............ 624 Sources........... 775 Movement Variations...... 625 Further Reading........ 776 Historical Context....... 627 Critical Overview........ 629 SURREALISM.......... 777 Criticism........... 630 Representative Authors...... 778 Sources........... 652 Representative Works...... 780 Further Reading........ 653 Themes........... 781 Style............ 783 REALISM............ 654 Movement Variations...... 784 Representative Authors...... 655 Historical Context....... 785 Representative Works...... 658 Critical Overview........ 787 Themes........... 661 Criticism........... 788 Style............ 662 Sources........... 800 Movement Variations...... 663 Further Reading........ 800 Historical Context....... 664 Critical Overview........ 666 SYMBOLISM........... 802 Criticism........... 668 Representative Authors...... 803 Sources........... 680 Representative Works...... 805 Further Reading........ 680 Themes........... 807 Style............ 809 RENAISSANCE LITERATURE..... 682 Movement Variations...... 809 Representative Authors...... 683 Historical Context....... 810 Representative Works...... 685 Themes........... 688 Critical Overview........ 812 Style............ 689 Criticism........... 814 Movement Variations...... 690 Sources........... 834 Historical Context....... 691 Further Reading........ 835 Critical Overview........ 693 Criticism........... 693 TRANSCENDENTALISM....... 836 Sources........... 704 Representative Authors...... 837 Further Reading........ 704 Representative Works...... 839 Themes........... 842 ROMANTICISM.......... 705 Style............ 844 Representative Authors...... 706 Movement Variations...... 845 Representative Works...... 709 Historical Context....... 846 Themes........... 712 Style............ 713 Critical Overview........ 847 Movement Variations...... 713 Criticism........... 848 Historical Context....... 715 Sources........... 858 Critical Overview........ 717 Further Reading........ 858 Criticism........... 718 Sources........... 743 SMALLER MOVEMENTS AND SCHOOLS.. 859 Further Reading........ 743 Sources........... 871 v i i i L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS.... xxxix CUMULATIVE AUTHOR/TITLE INDEX.. lxxiii CUMULATIVE NATIONALITY/ETHNICITY INDEX............. lxxix CUMULATIVE SUBJECT/THEME INDEX.. lxxxv L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 i x  Novels That Include the Names of French Soups I. A. Richards, the well-known literary critic, once discussion, no way of developing knowledge said, ‘‘A book is a machine to think with.’’ In about them, of understanding how a poem or a making this observation, Richards underscored novel or a play fits into its time or what it shares the reciprocal relationship between reader and in common with other texts. Academia organizes text and the fact that words don’t just sit there itself, for better and worse, in disciplines, and the full of meaning waiting to be discovered, but discipline of literature organizes itself in periods, rather gain their meaning by the breadth and which themselves are associated with movements. quality of knowledge readers bring to them. Lit- This kind of packaging enables closer scrutiny of erary Movements for Students provides readers the object studied, which paradoxically results in with this knowledge by describing various litera- a more comprehensive understanding of the tures in their historical and cultural contexts, by material. By organizing texts and writers in providing representative examples of the best- terms of literary movements, this series aims to known movements, and by encouraging students provide readers with a foot in the door, a way to to explore those movements more deeply. think about well-known texts and tools with which to think about them. It’s important to ‘‘Literary Movements’’ is really a misnomer, remember, however, that it is just one way, not for often the texts described under this heading the only way, to study literature. were considered neither literary nor part of a discernible movement when they were written. The word ‘‘literary’’ gained its current mean- Labels are often attached to certain writers or ing as a term used to denote a quality of poems, texts by critics and literary historians for effi- plays, and fiction in the eighteenth century, when ciency’s sake and with the benefit of hindsight, writing itself proliferated, and professional literary often decades, sometimes centuries, after a text critics emerged to police it by giving names to this has been written. Part of identifying a movement or that kind of writing. An adjectival form of is arguing for what features define the writing ‘‘literature,’’ ‘‘literary’’ was used to exclude other associated with it, and then locating those fea- types of writing such as philosophy and history. tures in specific texts. This necessarily means that Today it has an even narrower connotation, serv- the description of movements is not objective, but ing to mark literature that is ‘‘serious’’ and ‘‘cere- colored by a critic or literary historian’s own bral,’’ as opposed to ‘‘popular’’ such as the romance particular agendas, whether or not he or she is novel or the suspense thriller. One recent example aware of such agendas. That said, there still needs of both the merits and pitfalls of associating one’s to be some kind of organizing principle for study- work with the term is novelist Jonathan Franzen’s ing texts, or else there would be no basis for now well-known spat with talk show host Oprah x i  N o v e l s T h a t I n c l u d e t h e N a m e s o f F r e n c h S o u p s Winfrey in 2001. Franzen declined to have his Say, for example, that you’ve just seen a novel, The Corrections, be named Winfrey’s book production of Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for God- of the month selection for her book club, which otand were so impressed that you bought and would have virtually guaranteed it financial suc- read the book. You’ve heard Beckett’s name asso- cess, claiming that Winfrey’s endorsement ruined ciated with Absurdism, but don’t really know his reputation in ‘‘high art’’ circles. Franzen even- what that is. If you look up Absurdism in Literary tually retracted his comment, but the damage had Movements for Students, you will find an over- already been done. In this instance, Franzen was view of the movement, including its history, its protecting his image as a producer of literary, as prominent features, its primary practitioners, and opposed to popular, novels. Franzen is not, how- how it is embodied not only in literature and ever, a member of any literary movement if we Beckett’s work, but in other media and disciplines understand ‘‘movement’’ to signify organized such as film, painting, and philosophy. You activities by a group of people with a stated might also find Beckett under Existentialism. Lit- objective, though his writing might be included erary Movement for Students isn’t reductive, but under Realism. rather expansive in its treatment of movements, charting the crevices and crannies as much as the Some literary movements did begin with a road most traveled. Movements are provisional clear intention, organized activities, and a set of by their very nature, contingent on institutional principles—surrealism, for example. French poet and historical forces, so you’ll find a degree of Guillame Apollinaire coined the term ‘‘surreal- crossover here, with writers and texts sometime ism,’’ and André Breton, another French poet, listed under more than one movement. That’s a spelled out the principles in the Manifesto of Sur- good thing. realism. Other movements, such as twentieth-cen- tury Expressionism, elements of which are In the preface to his study historicizing the evident in art and theater of the nineteenth cen- human sciences, The Order of Things, Michel tury, are more nebulous, harder to pin down in Foucault notes the hilarity of a passage from a terms of features or history. There are no Expres- story by Jorge Luis Borges in which Borges sionist manifestos, and some critics claim that no describes a Chinese encyclopedia’s taxonomy of such animal as Expressionism even exists. Often, animals. Some of the categories include ‘‘belong- the term given to a literary movement becomes a ing to the emperor,’’ ‘‘fabulous,’’ ‘‘embalmed,’’ point of contention for critics whose view of lit- ‘‘frenzied,’’ and ‘‘that from a long way off look erary history differs from establishment norms. like flies.’’ One can also imagine a system of Postcolonialism is a good case in point. Some describing literature based on a principle other want to limit the term to signify texts produced than literary movements. Such a system might in former British colonies after the fall of the include categories like ‘‘books over thirty-four British Empire. Others argue that almost all liter- pages,’’ ‘‘poems with wine stains,’’ ‘‘plays involv- ature (including American) is, in theory, postco- ing a butter dish, a butler, and two pencils,’’ and lonial, because in the end history is a series of wars ‘‘novels that include names of French soups.’’ and occupations, of one culture displacing ano- While teaching a course based on texts from ther. Movements are not static, but dynamic, one of these categories might well prove engag- evolving from the fray of competing interests ing, (I’d certainly like to try), one would have a and historical developments. An entry on Post- difficult time justifying it to a curriculum review colonialism written ten years from today will no committee. The fact is, literature illustrates, and doubt look radically different than the one you often instigates, social trends, and history speaks read here. It might include novels by writers from through writers, whether they want it to or not. some of the former Soviet republics, or perhaps As of today, critics have yet to make a case for poems from an author of a state yet to be formed, novels that include the names of French soups to whose people are now battling for independence. be considered a major literary movement. But Ultimately, it is the shape of the movement itself you might want to check back in ten years, just that is important to grasp, and the context of in case. how, when, and why a particular literature came Chris Semansky into being. Literary Movements for Students Chemeketa Community College, Salem, gives you that ‘‘how,’’ ‘‘when,’’ and ‘‘why.’’ Oregon x i i L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  Introduction Purpose of the Book To further aid the student in studying and The purpose of Literary Movements for Stu- enjoying each literary movement, information dents (LMfS) is to provide readers with a guide on media adaptations is provided (if available), to understanding, enjoying, and studying liter- as well as reading suggestions for works of fic- ary movements by giving them easy access to tion and nonfiction on similar themes and information about a given literary movement. topics. Classroom aids include ideas for research Part of Gale’s ‘‘For Students’’ literature line, papers, study questions, and lists of critical sour- LMfS is specifically designed to meet the curric- ces that provide additional material on each ular needs of high school and undergraduate movement. college students and their teachers, as well as the interests of general readers and researchers Selection Criteria considering specific literary movements. The titles for both volumes of LMfS were selected by surveying numerous sources on The information covered in each entry teaching literature and analyzing course curric- includes an introduction to the literary movement; ula for various school districts. Some of the discussion of certain representative authors and sources surveyed included: literature antholo- works associated with the movement; analysis of gies; Reading Lists for College-Bound Students: the movement’s predominant themes; and an The Books Most Recommended by America’s Top explanation of related literary techniques. Colleges; and Arthur Applebee’s 1993 study Lit- erature in the Secondary School: Studies of Cur- In addition to this material, which helps the riculum and Instruction in the United States. readers to analyze the movement itself, students Input was also solicited from our advisory are also provided with important information board, as well as educators from various areas. on its literary and historical background. This From these discussions, it was determined that includes a historical context essay, a sidebar com- the first volume should deal with earlier move- paring the time or place the movement occurred ments that took place approximately before to modern Western culture, a critical essay, and the twentieth century, while the second volume previously published criticism on the move- should deal primarily with the more modern ment (if available). A unique feature of LMfS movements of the twentieth century and beyond. is a specially commissioned critical essay on Because of the interest in expanding the canon each literary movement, targeted toward the of literature, an emphasis was also placed on student reader. discussing works by international, multicultural, x i i i  I n t r o d u c t i o n and women authors. Our advisory board mem- Critical Overview: this section provides back- bers—educational professionals—helped pare ground on the critical reputation of the move- down the list for each volume. As always, the ment, including any public controversies editor welcomes suggestions for movements to surrounding the movement. For older move- be included in possible future volumes. ments, this section includes a history of how the movement was first received and how per- How Each Entry Is Organized ceptions of it may have changed over the years; Each entry, or chapter, in LMfS focuses on for more recent movements, direct quotes one literary movement. Each entry heading lists from early reviews may also be included. the full name of the movement and the approx- Criticism: an essay commissioned for LMfS that imate year of the movement’s origin. The follow- specifically deals with the movement and is ing elements are contained in each entry: written specifically for the student audience, as Introduction: a brief overview of the movement, well as one or more pieces of previously pub- which provides information about its first lished criticism on the movement (if available). appearance, its literary standing, any contro- Sources: an alphabetical list of critical material versies surrounding it, and related themes. used in compiling the entry, with full biblio- Representative Authors: this section includes graphical information. basic facts about several authors associated Further Reading: an alphabetical list of other with the movement, focusing on their rela- critical sources which may prove useful for tionship to the movement, including specific the student. It includes full bibliographical works written by the authors that might be information and a brief annotation. typical of the movement. In addition, each entry contains the following Representative Works: a description of specific highlighted sections, set apart from the main works that have been identified as typical or text as sidebars: representative of the movement. Media Adaptations: if available, a list of impor- Themes: an overview of the major topics, tant film and television adaptations related themes, and issues related to the movement. to the movement, including source informa- Each theme discussed appears under a sep- tion. The list may also include such variations arate subhead and is easily accessed through as audio recordings, musical adaptations, the boldface entries in the Subject/Theme and stage adaptations. Index. Topics for Further Study: a list of potential study Style: this section addresses important style ele- questions or research topics dealing with the ments of the movement, such as setting, point movement. This section includes questions of view, and narration, as well as important related to other disciplines the student may literary devices used, such as imagery, fore- be studying, such as American history, world shadowing, symbolism. Literary terms are history, science, math, government, business, explained within the entry but can also be geography, economics, psychology, etc. found in the Glossary. Compare and Contrast: an ‘‘at-a-glance’’ com- Movement Variations: this section briefly dis- parison of the cultural and historical differ- cusses variations of the movement, includ- ences between the time and culture of the ing variations in geography (i.e., different movement and late twentieth-century or countries), history (i.e., periodic revivals of early twenty-first-century Western culture. the movement), philosophy, and art. This box includes pertinent parallels between Historical Context: this section outlines the the major scientific, political, and cultural social, political, and cultural climate in movements of the time or place in which the which the movement took place. This section literary movement took place and modern may include descriptions of related histori- Western culture. cal events, pertinent aspects of daily life in What Do I Study Next?: a list of works that the culture, and the artistic and literary sen- might complement the featured literary sibilities of the time in which the movement movement or serve as a contrast to it. This took place. Each section is broken down includes works by the same representative with helpful subheads. authors and others, works of fiction and x i v L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  I n t r o d u c t i o n nonfiction, and works from various genres, Bildungsroman. Literary Movements for Students. cultures, and eras. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, Cengage Learning, 2009. 69–70. When quoting the specially commissioned Other Features essay from LMfS (usually the first piece under LMfS includes ‘‘Novels That Include the the ‘‘Criticism’’ subhead), the following format Names of French Soups,’’ a foreword by Chris should be used: Semansky, an educator and author who special- izes in poetic works. This essay examines how Kerschen, Lois. Critical Essay on the Bildungs- roman. Literary Movements for Students. literary movements come about in societies and The Gale Group, 2003. Reprinted in how people study such movements. The essay Literary Movements for Students. 2nd ed. also discusses how Literary Movements for Stu- Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, Cen- dents can help teachers show students how to gage Learning, 2009. 75–77. enrich their own reading/viewing experiences. When quoting a journal or newspaper essay A Cumulative Author/Title Index lists the that is reprinted in a volume of LMfS, the fol- representative authors and representative works lowing form may be used: covered in both volumes of LMfS. Carpenter, Charles A. ‘‘‘Victims of Duty’? The A Cumulative Nationality/Ethnicity Index Critics, Absurdity, and The Homecoming.’’ breaks down the representative authors and the Modern Drama 25.4 (December 1982): authors of representative works covered in both 489–95. Excerpted and reprinted in volumes of LMfS by nationality and ethnicity. Literary Movements for Students. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, Cen- A Subject/Theme Index provides easy refer- gage Learning, 2009. 17–20. ence for users who may be studying a particular subject or theme rather than a single work or When quoting material reprinted from a movement. Significant subjects from events to book that appears in a volume of LMfS, the broad themes are included, and the entries point- following form may be used: ing to the specific theme discussions in each Perry, Margaret. ‘‘The Major Novels.’’ Silence to entry are indicated in boldface. the Drums: A Survey of the Literature of the Harlem Renaissance. Greenwood Press, Each entry may include illustrations, includ- 1976. 61–88. Excerpted and reprinted in ing photos of the representative authors, stills Literary Movements for Students. 2nd ed. from stage productions, and stills from film Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale, Cen- adaptations. gage Learning, 2009. 361–72. We Welcome Your Suggestions Citing Literary Movements for Students The editor of Literary Movements for Stu- When writing papers, students who quote dents welcomes your comments and ideas. Read- directly from any volume of Literary Movements ers who wish to suggest movements to appear in for Students may use the following general forms. future volumes, or who have other suggestions, These examples are based on MLA style; teachers are cordially invited to contact the editor. You may request that students adhere to a different may contact the editor via E-mail at: ForStudents style, so the following examples may be adapted [email protected]. Or write to the editor at: as needed. Editor When citing text from LMfS that is not attrib- Literary Movements for Students uted to a particular author (e.g., the Themes, Style, Gale Historical Context sections, etc.), the following for- 27500 Drake Road mat should be used in the bibliography section: Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 x v  Literary Chronology c. 750 BC ?: Homer, author representative of c. 445 BC : Eupolis, author representative of Classicism, flourishes about this time. Greek Drama, flourishes about this time. c. 750 BC : Iliad, written by Homer and represen- 441 BC : Antigone, written by Sophocles and rep- tative of Classicism, is created. resentative of Greek Drama, is produced. c. 534 BC : Thespis, author representative of c. 440 BC : Epicharmus, author representative of Greek Drama, flourishes about this time. Greek Drama, dies. c. 530 BC : Epicharmus, author representative of 431 BC : Medea, written by Euripides and repre- Greek Drama, is born. sentative of Classicism and Greek Drama, is c. 525 BC : Aeschylus, author representative of produced. Greek Drama, is born. c. 430 BC : Sophron, author representative of c. 496 BC : Sophocles, author representative of Greek Drama, flourishes about this time. Greek Drama, is born. 427 BC : Oedpus the King, written by Sophocles c. 485 BC : Euripides, author representative of and representative of Greek Drama, is Greek Drama and Classicism, is born. produced. c. 479–221 BC : Analects of Confucius, written by c. 420 BC : Cratinus, author representative of Confucius and representative of Humanism, Greek Drama, dies. is compiled. c. 420 BC : Phrynichus, author representative of 472 BC : Prometheus Bound, written by Aeschylus Greek Drama, flourishes about this time. and representative of Greek Drama, is c. 414 BC : Birds, written by Aristophanes and produced. representative of Greek Drama, is produced. 458 BC : Oresteia, written by Aeschylus and rep- c. 411 BC : Eupolis, author representative of resentative of Greek Drama, is produced. Greek Drama, dies. c. 456 BC : Aeschylus, author representative of 411 BC : Lysistrata, written by Aristophanes and Greek Drama, dies. representative of Greek Drama, is produced. c. 450 BC : Aristophanes, author representative of c. 406 BC : Euripides, author representative of Greek Drama, is born. Greek Drama and Classicism, dies. c. 450 BC : Crates, author representative of Greek c. 406 BC : Sophocles, author representative of Drama, flourishes about this time. Greek Drama, dies. x v i i  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y c. 405 BC : Bacchae, written by Euripides and c. 1327: Meister Eckhart, author representative representative of Greek Drama, is produced of the Medieval Mystics, dies. posthumously. c. 1334: The Exemplar, written by Henry Suso 405 BC : Frogs, written by Aristophanes and rep- and representative of the Medieval Mystics, resentative of Greek Drama, is produced. is published. c. 401 BC : Oedipus at Colonus, written by 1335: The Spiritual Espousals, written by John Sophocles and representative of Greek Ruusbroec and representative of the Medieval Drama, is produced. Mystics, is published. c. 385 BC : Aristophanes, author representative of c. 1340: The Fire of Love, written by Richard Greek Drama, dies. Rolle and representative of the Medieval c. 342 BC : Menander, author representative of Mystics, is published. Greek Drama, is born. 1342: Julian of Norwich, author representative of the Medieval Mystics, is born. 317 BC : Dyscolus, written by Menander and rep- resentative of Greek Drama, is produced. 1347: Catherine of Siena, author representative of the Medieval Mystics, is born. c. 292 BC : Menander, author representative of Greek Drama, dies. 1349: Richard Rolle, author representative of the Medieval Mystics, dies. 106 BC : Cicero, author representative of Classicism, is born. c. 1350: Familiar Letters, written by Francesco Petrarch and representative of Humanism, 70 BC : Vergil, author representative of Classicism, is published. is born. c. 1350: Theologia Germanica, written by an 43 BC : Cicero, author representative of Classicism, unknown author and representative of the dies. Medieval Mystics, is published. 19 BC :Vergil, author representative of Classicism, c. 1350–c. 1400: The Cloud of Unknowing, writ- dies. ten by an unknown author and representa- c. 19 BC : Aeneid, written by Vergil and represen- tive of the Medieval Mystics, is published. tative of Classicism, is published. 1361: Johannes Tauler, author representative of 1217: Giovanni Bonaventure, author represen- the Medieval Mystics, dies. tative of the Medieval Mystics, is born. 1366: Henry Suso, author representative of the 1259: The Soul’s Journey into God, written by Medieval Mystics, dies. Bonaventure and representative of the c. 1373: Margery Kempe, author representative Medieval Mystics, is published. of the Medieval Mystics, is born. c. 1260: Meister Eckhart, author representative c. 1373: Revelations of Divine Love, written by of the Medieval Mystics, is born. Julian of Norwich and representative of the 1274: Giovanni Bonaventure, author represen- Medieval Mystics, is published. tative of the Medieval Mystics, dies. 1374: Francesco Petrarch, author representative 1293: John Ruusbroec, author representative of of Humanism, dies. the Medieval Mystics, is born. 1380: Catherine of Siena, author representative 1295: Henry Suso, author representative of the of the Medieval Mystics, dies. Medieval Mystics, is born. 1381: John Ruusbroec, author representative of 1300: Richard Rolle, author representative of the Medieval Mystics, dies. the Medieval Mystics, is born. 1405: Lorenzo Valla, author representative of 1300: Johannes Tauler, author representative of Humanism, is born. the Medieval Mystics, is born. c. 1416: Julian of Norwich, author representative c. 1300–c. 1327: Meister Eckhart’s Sermons, of the Medieval Mystics, dies. written by Meister Eckhart and representa- 1433: Marsilio Ficino, author representative of tive of the Medieval Mystics, is published. Humanism, is born. 1304: Francesco Petrarch, author representative c. 1438: Margery Kempe, author representative of Humanism, is born. of the Medieval Mystics, dies. x v i i i L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1438: The Book of Margery Kempe, written by of Catherine’s teachings and representative Margery Kempe and representative of the of the Medieval Mystics, is published. Medieval Mystics, is completed. 1527: Niccolò Machiavelli, author representa- 1444: Book of Elegances, or Elegances of the tive of Renaissance Literature, dies about Latin Language, written by Lorenzo Valla this time. and representative of Humanism, is published. 1528: Book of the Courtier, written by Baldassare 1447: Catherine of Genoa, author representative Castiglione and representative of Humanism, of the Medieval Mystics, is born. is published. 1452: Girolamo Savonarola, author representa- 1529: Baldassare Castiglione, author representa- tive of Humanism, is born. tive of Humanism, dies. 1457: Lorenzo Valla, author representative of 1532: The Prince, written by Niccolò Machiavelli Humanism, dies. and representative of Renaissance Literature, is published. 1463: Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, author representative of Humanism, is born. 1533: Michel de Montaigne, author representa- tive of Renaissance Literature, is born. c. 1466: Desiderius Erasmus, author representa- tive of Humanism and Renaissance Liter- 1535: Sir Thomas More, author representative ature, is born. of Humanism and Renaissance Literature, dies. 1469: Niccolò Machiavelli, author representa- tive of Renaissance Literature, is born. 1536: Desiderius Erasmus, author representative of Humanism and Renaissance Literature, 1478: Baldassare Castiglione, author representa- dies. tive of Humanism, is born. 1547: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, author c. 1478: Sir Thomas More, author representative representative of Renaissance Literature, is of Humanism and Renaissance Literature, born about this time. is born. c. 1553: John Lyly, author representative of 1494: Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, author Elizabethan Drama, is born. representative of Humanism, dies. 1553: François Rabelais, author representative c. 1494: François Rabelais, author representa- of Renaissance Literature, dies. tive of Renaissance Literature, is born. 1558: Thomas Kyd, author representative of 1496: Oration on the Dignity of Man, written by Elizabethan Drama, is born. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and repre- 1559: George Chapman, author representative sentative of Humanism, is published of Elizabethan Drama, is born. posthumously. 1564: Christopher Marlowe, author representa- 1498: Girolamo Savonarola, author representa- tive of Elizabethan Drama and Renaissance tive of Humanism, dies. Literature, is born. 1499: Marsilio Ficino, author representative of 1564: William Shakespeare, author representa- Humanism, dies. tive of Elizabethan Drama and Renaissance 1500: Adages, written by Desiderius Erasmus and Literature, is born. representative of Humanism, is published. c. 1572: Thomas Dekker, author representative 1510: Catherine of Genoa, author representative of Elizabethan Drama, is born. of the Medieval Mystics, dies. 1572: Ben Jonson, author representative of 1511: The Praise of Folly, written by Desiderius Elizabethan Drama, is born. Erasmus and representative of Renaissance c. 1573: Thomas Heywood, author representa- Literature, is published. tive of Elizabethan Drama, is born. 1516: Utopia, written by Sir Thomas More and c. 1580: John Webster, author representative of representative of Humanism and Renaissance Elizabethan Drama, is born. Literature, is published. 1580: The Essays, written by Michel de Montaigne c. 1522: The Spiritual Dialogue, written by and representative of Renaissance Literature, is friends of Catherine of Genoa on the basis published. L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 x i x  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1585: Elizabeth Carey, author representative of 1622: Molière, author representative of Neo- Elizabethan Drama, is born. classicism, is born. 1586: The Spanish Tragedy, written by Thomas 1623: The Duchess of Malfi, written by John Kyd and representative of Elizabethan Webster and representative of Elizabethan Drama, is published. Drama, is published. c. 1587: Tamburlaine the Great, written by 1631: John Dryden, author representative of Christopher Marlowe and representative of Neoclassicism, is born. Elizabethan Drama, is published. 1632: Thomas Dekker, author representative of 1592: Michel de Montaigne, author representa- Elizabethan Drama, dies. tive of Renaissance Literature, dies. 1634: George Chapman, author representative 1592: The Jew of Malta, written by Christopher of Elizabethan Drama, dies. Marlowe and representative of Elizabethan c. 1634: John Webster, author representative of Drama, is published. Elizabethan Drama, dies. 1593: Christopher Marlowe, author representa- 1637: Ben Jonson, author representative of tive of Elizabethan Drama and Renaissance Elizabethan Drama, dies. Literature, dies. 1639: Jean Racine, author representative of 1594: Thomas Kyd, author representative of Classicism, is born. Elizabethan Drama, dies. 1639: Elizabeth Carey, author representative of 1597: The Woman in the Moon, written by John Elizabethan Drama, dies. Lyly and representative of Elizabethan 1640: Horace, written by Pierre Corneille and Drama, is published. representative of Classicism, is published. 1598: Everyman in His Humour, written by Ben 1641: Thomas Heywood, author representative Johnson and representative of Elizabethan of Elizabethan Drama, dies. Drama, is published. 1660: Daniel Defoe, author representative of 1600: Hamlet, written by William Shakespeare Neoclassicism, is born. and representative of Elizabethan Drama and Renaissance Literature, is published. 1664: Tartuffe, written by Molière and represen- tative of Neoclassicism, is produced. 1600: The Shoemaker’s Holiday, written by Thomas Dekker and representative of 1667: Andromaque, written by Jean Racine and Elizabethan Drama, is published. representative of Classicism, is published. 1603: A Woman Killed with Kindness, written by 1668: Of Dramatick Poesie: An Essay, written by Thomas Heywood and representative of John Dryden and representative of Neo- Elizabethan Drama, is published. classicism, is published. 1673: Molière, author representative of Neo- 1605–1615: Don Quixote, written by Miguel de classicism, dies. Cervantes Saavedra and representative of Renaissance Literature, is published. 1684: Pierre Corneille, author representative of Classicism, dies. 1606: Pierre Corneille, author representative of Classicism, is born. 1688: Alexander Pope, author representative of Neoclassicism, is born. 1606: John Lyly, author representative of Elizabethan Drama, dies. 1694: Voltaire, author representative of the Enlightenment, is born. 1613: The Tragedy of Mariam, written by Eliza- beth Carey and representative of Eliza- 1699: Jean Racine, author representative of bethan Drama, is published. Classicism, dies. 1616: William Shakespeare, author representa- 1700: John Dryden, author representative of tive of Elizabethan Drama and Renaissance Neoclassicism, dies. Literature, dies. 1709: Samuel Johnson, author representative of 1616: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, author Neoclassicism, is born. representative of Renaissance Literature, 1711: David Hume, author representative of the dies. Enlightenment, is born. x x L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1712: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author represen- 1770: William Wordsworth, author representa- tative of the Enlightenment, is born. tive of Romanticism, is born. 1712: The Rape of the Lock, written by Alex- 1771: Charles Brockden Brown, author repre- ander Pope and representative of Neoclass- sentative of Gothic Literature, is born. icism, is published. 1772: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, author represen- 1713: Denis Diderot, author representative of tative of Romanticism, is born. the Enlightenment, is born. 1775: Matthew Gregory Lewis, author represen- 1717: Horace Walpole, author representative of tative of Gothic Literature, is born. Gothic Literature, is born. 1775: Jane Austen, author representative of 1719: Robinson Crusoe, written by Daniel Defoe Romanticism, is born. and representative of Neoclassicism, is 1776: David Hume, author representative of the published. Enlightenment, dies. 1727: Gulliver’s Travels, written by Jonathan 1776: Declaration of Independence, written by Swift and representative of Neoclassicism, Thomas Jefferson and others and represen- is published. tative of the Enlightenment, is published. 1729: G. E. Lessing, author representative of the 1778: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author represen- Enlightenment, is born. tative of the Enlightenment, dies. 1731: Daniel Defoe, author representative of 1778: Voltaire, author representative of the Neoclassicism, dies. Enlightenment, dies. 1733: Christoph Martin Wieland, author repre- 1779: Nathan the Wise, written by G. E. Lessing sentative of Bildungsroman, is born. and representative of the Englightenment, is 1737: Thomas Paine, author representative of published. the Enlightenment, is born. 1780: Charles Robert Maturin, author represen- 1738: London, written by Samuel Johnson and tative of Gothic Literature, is born. representative of Neoclassicism, is published. 1781: G. E. Lessing, author representative of the 1744: Alexander Pope, author representative of Englightenment, dies. Neoclassicism, dies. 1784: Denis Diderot, author representative of 1749: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, author rep- the Enlightenment, dies. resentative of Bildungsroman, is born. 1784: Samuel Johnson, author representative of 1751–1765: Encyclope´die, written by Denis Neoclassicism, dies. Diderot and representative of the Enlight- 1786: Vathek, written by William Beckford and enment, is published. representative of Gothic Literature, is 1757: William Blake, author representative of published. Romanticism, is born. 1788: George Gordon, Lord Byron, author rep- 1759: Candide, written by Voltaire and represen- resentative of Romanticism, is born. tative of the Enlightenment, is published. 1790–1832: Faust, written by Johann Wolfgang 1760: William Beckford, author representative von Goethe and representative of Class- of Gothic Literature, is born. icism, is published. 1762: Émile, written by Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1792: Percy Bysshe Shelley, author representa- and representative of the Enlightenment, is tive of Romanticism, is born. published. 1794: The Mysteries of Udolpho, written by Ann 1762: The Social Contract, written by Jean- Radcliffe and representative of Gothic Jacques Rousseau and representative of the Literature, is published. Enlightenment, is published. 1794: Songs of Innocence and of Experience, writ- 1764: Ann Radcliffe, author representative of ten by William Blake and representative of Gothic Literature, is born. Romanticism, is published. 1764: The Castle of Otranto, written by Horace 1794–1807: The Age of Reason, written by Walpole and representative of Gothic Liter- Thomas Paine and representative of the ature, is published. Enlightenment, is published. L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 x x i  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1795: John Keats, author representative of 1817: Henry David Thoreau, author representa- Romanticism, is born. tive of Transcendentalism, is born. 1795: Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship, written 1818: Emily Brontë, author representative of by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and repre- Gothic Literature, is born. sentative of Bildungsroman, is published. 1818: Frankenstein, written by Mary Wollstone- 1795: The Monk, written by Matthew Gregory craft Shelley and representative of Roman- Lewis and representative of Gothic Litera- ticism, Gothic Literature, and Science Fiction ture, is published. and Fantasy Literature, is published. 1797: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, author rep- 1818: Matthew Gregory Lewis, author represen- resentative of Gothic Literature, Roman- tative of Gothic Literature, dies. ticism, and Science Fiction and Fantasy 1819: George Eliot, author representative of Literature, is born. Realism, is born. 1797: Horace Walpole, author representative of 1819: Walt Whitman, author representative of Gothic Literature, dies. Transcendentalism, is born. 1798: Wieland, written by Charles Brockden 1819: ‘‘To Autumn,’’ written by John Keats and Brown and representative of Gothic representative of Romanticism, is published. Literature, is published. 1799: Honoré de Balzac, author representative 1820: Melmoth the Wanderer, written by Charles of Realism, is born. Robert Maturin and representative of Gothic Literature, is published. 1799: Alexander Pushkin, author representative of Romanticism, is born. 1820: Prometheus Unbound, written by Percy Bysshe Shelley and representative of Rom- 1803: Ralph Waldo Emerson, author represen- anticism, is published. tative of Transcendentalism, is born. 1821: Fyodor Dostoevsky, author representative 1804: Nathaniel Hawthorne, author representa- of Existentialism and Realism, is born. tive of Transcendentalism, is born. 1821: Gustave Flaubert, author representative 1809: Thomas Paine, author representative of of Realism, is born. the Englightenment, dies. 1821: John Keats, author representative of 1809: Edgar Allan Poe, author representative of Romanticism, dies. Gothic Literature, is born. 1810: Charles Brockden Brown, author repre- 1821: Charles Baudelaire, author representative sentative of Gothic Literature, dies. of Symbolism, is born. 1810: Margaret Fuller, author representative of 1822: Percy Bysshe Shelley, author representa- Transcendentalism, is born. tive of Romanticism, dies. 1812: Charles Dickens, author representative of 1823: Ann Radcliffe, author representative of Bildungsroman and Realism, is born. Gothic Literature, dies. 1812–1818: Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, written 1824: Charles Robert Maturin, author represen- by George Gordon, Lord Byron and repre- tative of Gothic Literature, dies. sentative of Romanticism, is published. 1824: George Gordon, Lord Byron, author rep- 1813: Christoph Martin Wieland, author repre- resentative of Romanticism, dies. sentative of Bildungsroman, dies. 1825–1832: Eugene Onegin, written by Alexander 1813: Søren Kierkegaard, author representative Pushkin and representative of Romanticism, is of Existentialism, is born. published. 1813: Pride and Prejudice, written by Jane 1827: William Blake, author representative of Austen and representative of Romanticism, Romanticism, dies. is published. 1828: Leo Tolstoy, author representative of 1816: Charlotte Brontë, author representative of Realism, is born. Bildungsroman, is born. 1828: Jules Verne, author representative of 1817: Jane Austen, author representative of Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is Romanticism, dies. born. x x i i L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1832: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, author rep- 1849–1850: David Copperfield, written by Char- resentative of Bildungsroman, dies. les Dickens and representative of Realism, is 1832: Louisa May Alcott, author representative published. of Transcendentalism, is born. 1850: Honoré de Balzac, author representative 1834: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, author represen- of Realism, dies. tative of Romanticism, dies. 1850: Guy de Maupassant, author representa- 1834: ‘‘The Fall of the House of Usher,’’ written tive of Realism, is born. by Edgar Allan Poe and representative of 1850: William Wordsworth, author representa- Gothic Literature, is published. tive of Romanticism, dies. 1835: Mark Twain, author representative of 1850: Margaret Fuller, author representative of Bildungsroman, is born. Transcendentalism, dies. 1836: Nature, written by Ralph Waldo Emerson 1851: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, author rep- and representative of Transcendentalism, is resentative of Gothic Literature, Roman- published. ticism, and Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, dies. 1837: William Dean Howells, author representa- tive of Realism, is born. 1852: The Blithedale Romance, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne and representative 1837: Alexander Pushkin, author representative of Transcendentalism, is published. of Romanticism, dies. 1854: Arthur Rimbaud, author representative of 1840: Émile Zola, author representative of Symbolism, is born. Naturalism and Realism, is born. 1854: Walden, written by Henry David Thoreau 1842: Stéphane Mallarmé, author representative and representative of Transcendentalism, is of Symbolism, is born. published. 1842–1855: The Human Comedy, written by 1855: Charlotte Brontë, author representative of Honoré de Balzac and representative of Bildungsroman, dies. Realism, is published. 1855: Olive Schreiner, author representative of 1843: Henry James, author representative of Colonialism, is born. Realism, is born. 1855: Søren Kierkegaard, author representative 1844: William Beckford, author representative of Existentialism, dies. of Gothic Literature, dies. 1855: Leaves of Grass, written by Walt Whitman 1844: Paul Verlaine, author representative of and representative of Transcendentalism, is Symbolism, is born. published. 1845: Woman in the Nineteenth Century, written 1856: H. Rider Haggard, author representative by Margaret Fuller and representative of of Colonialism, is born. Transcendentalism, is published. 1857: Joseph Conrad, author representative of 1847: Jane Eyre, written by Charlotte Brontë Colonialism, is born. and representative of Bildungsroman, is 1857: Madame Bovary, written by Gustave published. Flaubert and representative of Realism, is 1847: Wuthering Heights, written by Emily published. Brontë and representative of the Gothic 1857: Flowers of Evil, written by Charles Literature, is published. Baudelaire and representative of Symbo- 1848: Emily Brontë, author representative of lism, is published. Gothic Literature, dies. 1861: Great Expectations, written by Charles 1848: Joris-Karl Huysmans, author representa- Dickens and representative of Bildungsroman, tive of Symbolism, is born. is published. 1849: August Strindberg, author representative 1862: Edith Wharton, author representative of of Expressionism, is born. Naturalism, is born. 1849: Edgar Allan Poe, author representative of 1862: Maurice Maeterlinck, author representa- Gothic Literature, dies. tive of Symbolism, is born. L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 x x i i i  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1862: Henry David Thoreau, author representa- 1875–1877: Anna Karenina, written by Leo tive of Transcendentalism, dies. Tostoy and representative of Realism, is 1864: Frank Wedekind, author representative of published. Expressionism, is born. 1876: Jack London, author representative of the 1864: Nathaniel Hawthorne, author representa- Naturalism, is born. tive of Transcendentalism, dies. 1876: The Afternoon of a Faun, written by 1865: Rudyard Kipling, author representative of Stéphane Mallarmé and representative of Colonialism, is born. Symbolism, is published. 1865: Irving Babbitt, author representative of 1878: Georg Kaiser, author representative of Humanism, is born. Expressionism, is born. 1866: H. G. Wells, author representative of 1878: Daisy Miller, written by Henry James and Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is representative of Realism, is published. born. 1879: E. M. Forster, author representative of 1866: Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Colonialism, is born. Dostoevsky and representative of Realism, is published. 1879: Wallace Stevens, author representative of Modernism, is born. 1867: Charles Baudelaire, author representative of Symbolism, dies. 1880: ‘‘Ball of Fat,’’ written by Guy de Maupassant and representative of Realism, 1868: W. E. B. Du Bois, author representative of is published. the Harlem Renaissance, is born. 1880: George Eliot, author representative of 1870: Charles Dickens, author representative of Realism, dies. Bildungsroman and Realism, dies. 1870: Frank Norris, author representative of 1880: Gustave Flaubert, author representative Naturalism, is born. of Realism, dies. 1870: Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, 1880: Aleksandr Blok, author representative of written by Jules Verne and representative of Symbolism, is born. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is 1880: The Brothers Karamazov, written by published. Fyodor Dostoevsky and representative of 1871: James Weldon Johnson, author represen- Existentialism, is published. tative of the Harlem Renaissance, is born. 1881: Fyodor Dostoevsky, author representative 1871: Stephen Crane, author representative of of Existentialism and Realism, dies. Naturalism, is born. 1882: James Joyce, author representative of 1871: Theodore Dreiser, author representative Bildungsroman and Modernism, is born. of Naturalism, is born. 1882: Jessie Redmon Fauset, author representa- 1871–1872: Middlemarch, written by George tive of the Harlem Renaissance, is born. Eliot and representative of Realism, is 1882: Virginia Woolf, author representative of published. Modernism, is born. 1873: ‘‘Transcendental Wild Oats,’’ written by Louisa May Alcott and representative of 1882: Ralph Waldo Emerson, author represen- Transcendentalism, is published. tative of Transcendentalism, dies. 1874: Amy Lowell, author representative of 1883: Franz Kafka, author representative of Imagism, is born. Existentialism and Expressionism, is born. 1874: Gertrude Stein, author representative of 1883: Eugene O’Neill, author representative of Modernism, is born. Expressionism, is born. 1874: Songs without Words, written by Paul 1883: William Carlos Williams, author represen- Verlaine and representative of Symbolism, tative of Imagism, is born. is published. 1883: The Story of an African Farm, written by 1875: Thomas Mann, author representative of Olive Schreiner and representative of Col- Bildungsroman, is born. onialism, is published. x x i v L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1884: Against the Grain, written by Joris 1891: Spring’s Awakening, written by Frank Huysmans and representative of Symbolism, Wedekind and representative of Expre- is published. ssionism, is published. 1885: Isak Dinesen, author representative of 1892: Richard Aldington, author representative Colonialism, is born. of Imagism, is born. 1885: F. S. Flint, author representative of Imagism, 1892: J. R. R. Tolkien, author representative of is born. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is 1885: Ezra Pound, author representative of born. Imagism and Modernism, is born. 1892: Marina Tsvetaeva, author representative 1885: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, writ- of Symbolism, is born. ten by Mark Twain and representative of 1892: Walt Whitman, author representative of Bildungsroman, is published. Transcendentalism, dies. 1885: Germinal, written by émile Zola and rep- 1893: Guy de Maupassant, author representa- resentative of Realism, is published. tive of Realism, dies. 1886: Alain Locke, author representative of the 1893: Pelleas and Melisande, written by Maurice Harlem Renaissance, is born. Maeterlinck and representative of Sym- 1886: Hilda Doolittle, author representative of bolism, is published. Imagism, is born. 1894: Jean Toomer, author representative of the 1886: John Gould Fletcher, author representa- Harlem Renaissance, is born. tive of Imagism, is born. 1894: Aldous Huxley, author representative of 1886: Illuminations, written by Arthur Rimbaud Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is and representative of Symbolism, is born. published. 1895: Paul Eluard, author representative of 1887: Georg Trakl, author representative of Surrealism, is born. Expressionism, is born. 1895: Jude the Obscure, written by Thomas Hardy 1887: She, written by H. Rider Haggard and and representative of Bildungsroman, is representative of Colonialism, is published. published. 1888: T. S. Eliot, author representative of Class- icism and Modernism, is born. 1895: The Red Badge of Courage, written by Stephen Crane and representative of Nat- 1888: Katherine Mansfield, author representa- uralism, is published. tive of Colonialism, is born. 1895: The Time Machine: An Invention, written 1888: Louisa May Alcott, author representative by H. G. Wells and representative of Science of Transcendentalism, dies. Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is published. 1889: Claude McKay, author representative of 1896: André Breton, author representative of the Harlem Renaissance, is born. Surrealism, is born. 1889: Pierre Reverdy, author representative of 1896: Paul Verlaine, author representative of Surrealism, is born. Symbolism, dies. 1890: A Hazard of New Fortunes, written by William Dean Howells and representative 1897: William Faulkner, author representative of Realism, is published. of Modernism, is born. 1891: Zora Neale Hurston, author representa- 1897: Louis Aragon, author representative of tive of the Harlem Renaissance, is born. Surrealism, is born. 1891: Nella Larsen, author representative of the 1897: Phillipe Soupault, author representative of Harlem Renaissance, is born. Surrealism, is born. 1891: Mikhail Bulgakov, author representative 1897: Dracula, written by Bram Stoker and rep- of Magic Realism, is born. resentative of Gothic Literature, is published. 1891: Arthur Rimbaud, author representative of 1898: Federico Garcı́a Lorca, author representa- Symbolism, dies. tive of Expressionism, is born. L i t e r a r y M o v e m e n t s f o r S t u d e n t s , S e c o n d E d i t i o n , V o l u m e 1 x x v  L i t e r a r y C h r o n o l o g y 1898: C. S. Lewis, author representative of 1903: The Call of the Wild, written by Jack Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is London and representative of Naturalism, born. is published. 1898: Stéphane Mallarmé, author representative 1904: Alejo Carpentier, author representative of of Symbolism, dies. Magic Realism, is born. 1899: Ernest Hemingway, author representative 1905: Jean-Paul Sartre, author representative of of Existentialism, is born. Existentialism, is born. 1899: Miguel ángel Asturias, author representa- 1905: Jules Verne, author representative of tive of Magic Realism, is born. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, 1899: Jorge Luis Borges, author representative dies. of Magic Realism, is born. 1906: Samuel Beckett, author representative of 1899: ‘‘The White Man’s Burden,’’ written by Absurdism, is born. Rudyard Kipling and representative of 1907: Robert Heinlein, author representative of Colonialism, is published. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, is 1899: ‘‘Titee,’’ written by Alice Dunbar Nelson and born. representative of the Harlem Renaissance, is 1907: Joris-Karl Huysmans, author representa- published. tive of Symbolism, dies. 1899: McTeague: A Story of San Francisco, writ- 1908: Arthur Adamov, author representative of ten by Frank Norris and representative of Absurdism, is born. Naturalism, is published. 1908: Simone de Beauvoir, author representative 1899–1900: Heart of Darkness, written by Joseph of Existentialism, is born. Conrad and representative of Colonialism, is published. 1910: Jean Genet, author representative of Absurdism, is born.