Development Through the Lifespan PDF

Development Through the Lifespan Seventh Edition Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserv...

Development Through the Lifespan Seventh Edition Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 1.1 What is developmental science, and what factors stimulated expansion of the field? 1.2 Identify three basic issues on which theories of human development take a stand. 1.3 Describe the lifespan perspective on development. 1.4 Describe major early influences on the scientific study of development. 1.5 What theories influenced human development research in the mid-twentieth century? Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 1.6 Describe recent theoretical perspectives on human development. 1.7 Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the three basic issues of human development. 1.8 Describe methods commonly used in research on human development. 1.9 Distinguish between correlational and experimental research designs, noting the strengths and limitations of each. Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 1.10 Describe designs for studying development, noting the strengths and limitations of each. 1.11 What special ethical concerns arise in research on human development? Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Introduction Developmental Science The study of constancy and change throughout the lifespan The field is: Scientific Applied Interdisciplinary © Blend Images/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Basic Issues (1 of 5) Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that: Describes behavior Explains behavior Predicts behavior © bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Basic Issues (2 of 5) Basic Issues in Development Continuous or discontinuous? One course of development or many? Relative influence of nature and nurture? Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 1.1 Is development continuous or discontinuous? Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Basic Issues (3 of 5) Contexts of Development Unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change © xanirakx/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Basic Issues (4 of 5) Nature vs. Nurture Nature Hereditary information Received from parents at conception Nurture Physical and social forces Influences biological and psychological development Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Basic Issues (5 of 5) Stability and Plasticity Stability Persistence of individual differences Lifelong patterns established by early experiences Plasticity Development is open to lifelong change Change occurs based on influential experiences Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View (1 of 4) Lifespan Perspective Development is: Lifelong Multidimensional and multidirectional Highly plastic Influenced by multiple, interacting forces © Intellistudies/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View (2 of 4) Influences on Development Multiple, interacting forces that are: Age-graded History-graded Nonnormative © auremar/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View (3 of 4) Periods of Development Prenatal Conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood Birth‒2 years Early childhood 2‒6 years Middle childhood 6–11 years Adolescence 11‒18 years Early adulthood 18‒40 years Middle adulthood 40‒65 years Late adulthood 65 years‒death Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View (4 of 4) Domains of Development Domain Changes in Body size, proportions, appearance, Physical functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, physical health Cognitive Intellectual abilities Emotional communication, self- Emotional understanding, knowledge of others, and social interpersonal skills, relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Biology and Environment: Resilience Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development Factors in resilience: Personal characteristics Warm parental relationship Social support outside family © iofoto/Shutterstock Community resources and opportunities Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 1.3 The lifespan view of development Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Scientific Beginnings Early Scientific Theories Evolutionary Darwin: Principles of natural selection theory and survival of the fittest Hall and Gesell: Development as a Normative maturational process; age-related approach averages from large studies of children represent typical development Mental testing Binet and Simon: Early developers of movement intelligence testing; sparked interest in individual differences in development Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (1 of 7) Psychoanalytic Perspective Freud and Erikson: Emphasis on individual’s unique life history Conflicts between biological drives and social expectations © szefei/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (2 of 7) Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Largest portion of the mind Id Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs and desires Conscious, rational part of personality Ego Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably Conscience, which develops between 3 and Superego 6 years of age from interactions with caregivers Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (3 of 7) Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust vs. mistrust Birth–1 year Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 1–3 years Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years Industry vs. inferiority 6–11 years Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation Middle adulthood Integrity vs. despair Late adulthood Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (4 of 7) Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Classical conditioning Stimulus–response Operant conditioning Reinforcers and punishment Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (5 of 7) Social Learning Theory A baby claps her hands after her Modeling or mother does so; a teenager observational dresses like her friends learning Emphasized today; social- Cognition cognitive approach Children develop a sense of self- efficacy: a belief that their abilities Personal standards and characteristics will help them succeed Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (6 of 7) Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Contributions: Behavior modification Modeling, observational learning Limitations: Narrow view of environmental influences Underestimation of individual’s active role Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories (7 of 7) Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stages Period of Description Development Infants use the senses and movement to Sensorimotor Birth–2 years explore the world, and invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems. Preschool children use symbols, and develop Preoperational 2–7 years language and make-believe play. Thinking still lacks logic. Concrete Children’s reasoning becomes logical and operational 7–11 years better organized. Thinking is not yet abstract. Formal Abstract thinking enables adolescents to use operational 11 years on hypotheses and deduction. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements. Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (1 of 7) Information Processing Human mind as a symbol-manipulating system Researchers often design flowcharts to map problem-solving steps Development as a continuous process Strength: Use of rigorous research methods Limitation: Lacks insight into nonlinear cognition, such as imagination and creativity Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 1.4 Information-processing flowchart showing the steps that a 5-year-old used to solve a bridge-building problem Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (2 of 7) Developmental Neuroscience Developmental cognitive neuroscience: Relationship between brain activity and cognitive processing and behavior patterns Incorporates psychology, biology, neuroscience, medicine Developmental social neuroscience: Relationship between brain activity and emotional and social development Interest in identifying neural systems underlying adolescents’ heightened risk-taking behavior Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (3 of 7) Ethology Concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history Roots traced to work of Darwin: Imprinting Critical period Sensitive period © Nick Biemans/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (4 of 7) Sensitive Period An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge Individual is especially responsive to environmental influences Boundaries less well-defined than those of a critical period Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (5 of 7) Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Seeks to understand adaptive value of species-wide competencies Studies cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as they change with age Aims to understand the person–environment system Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (6 of 7) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Focuses on how culture (values, beliefs, customs, skills) is transmitted to next generation Social interaction (especially cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society) is necessary for children to acquire culture © Andresr/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Recent Theoretical Perspectives (7 of 7) Ecological Systems Theory Person develops within complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of surrounding environment Layers of environment: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem Chronosystem: dynamic, ever-changing nature of person’s environment Person and environment form a network of interdependent effects Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 1.5 Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Table 1.4 Stances of Major Theories on Basic Issues in Human Development (1 of 2) One Course of Influence of Theory Continuous or Development or Nature and Discontinuous? Many? Nurture? Psychoanalytic Both nature perspective Discontinuous One course and nurture Behaviorism and Many possible Emphasis social learning Continuous courses on nurture theory Piaget’s cognitive- One course Both nature developmental Discontinuous and nurture theory Information One course Both nature processing Continuous and nurture Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Table 1.4 Stances of Major Theories on Basic Issues in Human Development (2 of 2) One Course of Influence of Theory Continuous or Development or Nature and Discontinuous? Many? Nurture? Ethology and evolutionary Both continuous Both nature developmental and discontinuous One course and nurture psychology Vygotsky’s sociocultural Both continuous Many possible Both nature theory and discontinuous courses and nurture Ecological Not specified Many possible Both nature systems theory courses and nurture Lifespan Both continuous Many possible Both nature perspective and discontinuous courses and nurture Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (1 of 11) Scientific Research Hypothesis: Prediction drawn from a theory Research methods: Activities of participants Research designs: Overall plans for research studies Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (2 of 11) Systematic Observation Naturalistic observation: Behavior recorded in the field or natural environment Not all individuals have same opportunity to display behavior Cannot control conditions Structured observation: Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior All participants have equal chance to display behavior May not be typical of participants’ everyday behaviors Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (3 of 11) Self-Reports Clinical interview: Flexible conversation to get participants’ points of view Reflects everyday life and provides large amount of information in short amount of time May not result in accurate reporting of information Structured interview: Each participant is asked same questions in the same way Permits comparisons of responses and efficient data collection Not as in-depth as clinical interview Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (4 of 11) Clinical/Case Study Method Brings together wide range of information, including interviews, observations, test scores Well-suited to studying individuals who are few in number but vary widely in characteristics May be influenced by researcher biases, and conclusions may not generalize to anyone other than person studied Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (5 of 11) Ethnography Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group Mix of observations, self-reports, interpretation by investigator Investigators may observe selectively or misinterpret what they see Findings cannot be assumed to generalize beyond people and © skyfish/Shutterstock settings of research study Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Cultural Influences Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Land Many adapt surprisingly well Less likely to commit delinquent and violent acts, use drugs and alcohol, have early sex, miss school because of illness, or suffer from obesity Report just as favorable, and at times higher, self-esteem as do young people with native-born parents Influenced by strong allegiance to family and community Tensions between family values and new culture Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (6 of 11) Correlational Research Design Researchers gather information on individuals, without altering experiences Studies relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior or development Cannot infer cause and effect Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Figure 1.6 The meaning of correlation coefficients Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (7 of 11) Experimental Research Design Participants randomly assigned to treatment conditions Permits inferences about cause and effect Findings obtained in laboratories may not apply to everyday situations Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (8 of 11) Experimental Design Independent variable: Manipulated by investigator Expected to cause changes in another variable Dependent variable: Measured but not manipulated Expected to be influenced by the independent variable Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (9 of 11) Modified Experiments Field experiment: Conducted in natural setting Participants assigned randomly to treatment conditions Natural, or quasi-, experiment: Compare differences in treatments that already exist Groups chosen to ensure that their characteristics are as much alike as possible Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (10 of 11) Designs for Studying Development Same participants studied repeatedly Longitudinal at different ages Participants of differing ages studied at Cross-sectional the same point in time Several similar cross-sectional or Sequential longitudinal studies are conducted at varying times Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Studying Development (11 of 11) Strengths and Limitations of Research Designs Design Strengths Limitations Permits study of common patterns Participant dropout and individual differences, and Longitudinal relationships between early and Practice effects Cohort effects later events and behaviors More efficient than longitudinal Does not permit study of design, and not plagued by individual developmental Cross-sectional problems such as participant trends dropout and practice effects Cohort effects With longitudinal sequences, May have same problems permits longitudinal and cross- as longitudinal and cross- Sequential sectional comparisons. Also sectional strategies, but reveals cohort effects and tracks design itself helps identify age-related changes efficiently difficulties Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Ethics in Lifespan Research Rights of Research Participants Protection from harm Informed consent Privacy Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments © Goodluz/Shutterstock Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.  Limits of Use Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher. Copyright © 2018 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved.