Social Influence and Group Processes PDF

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed, and examine the influence of group on individual behaviour. CONTENTS Introduction Nature an...

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed, and examine the influence of group on individual behaviour. CONTENTS Introduction Nature and Formation of Groups Groupthink (Box 7.1) Type of Groups The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments (Box 7.2) Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour Key Terms Social Loafing Summary Group Polarisation Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 120 Psychology 2024-25 Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and classmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends. In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where you were Introduction without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Did you feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. It is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour. At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others and the society. A group may be defined as an NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS organised system of two or more What is a Group? individuals, who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, The preceding introduction illustrates the have a set of role relationships among its importance of groups in our lives. One members, and have norms that regulate question that comes to mind is: “How are the behaviour of its members. groups (e.g., your family, class, and the Groups have the following salient group with which you play) different from characteristics : other collections of people?” For example, A social unit consisting of two or more people who have assembled to watch a individuals who perceive themselves cricket match or your school function are as belonging to the group. This at one place, but are not interdependent characteristic of the group helps in on each other. They do not have defined distinguishing one group from the roles, status and expectations from each other and gives the group its unique other. In the case of your family, class, identity. and the group with which you play, you A collection of individuals who have will realise that there is mutual common motives and goals. Groups interdependence, each member has roles, function either working towards a there are status differentials, and there given goal, or away from certain are expectations from each other. Thus, threats facing the group. your family, class and playgroup are A collection of individuals who are examples of groups and are different from interdependent, i.e. what one is doing other collections of people. may have consequences for others. 121 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25  Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket road and an accident takes place. Soon team drops an important catch during a large number of people tend to collect. a match — this will have consequence This is an example of a crowd. There is for the entire team. neither any structure nor feeling of Individuals who are trying to satisfy belongingness in a crowd. Behaviour of a need through their joint association people in crowds is irrational and there also influence each other. is no interdependence among members. A gathering of individuals who interact Teams are special kinds of groups. with one another either directly or Members of teams often have comple- indirectly. mentary skills and are committed to a A collection of individuals whose common goal or purpose. Members are interactions are structured by a set mutually accountable for their activities. of roles and norms. This means that In teams, there is a positive synergy the group members perform the same attained through the coordinated efforts functions every time the group meets of the members. The main differences and the group members adhere to between groups and teams are: group norms. Norms tell us how we In groups, performance is dependent ought to behave in the group and on contributions of individual specify the behaviours expected from members. In teams, both individual group members. contributions and teamwork matter. Groups can be differentiated from In groups, the leader or whoever is other collections of people. For example, heading the group holds responsibility a crowd is also a collection of people who for the work. However in teams, may be present at a place/situation by although there is a leader, members chance. Suppose you are going on the hold themselves responsible. Picture A Picture B Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two Pictures Picture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles and goals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who by some coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time. 122 Psychology 2024-25  An audience is also a collection of Satisfaction of one’s psychological people who have assembled for a special and social needs : Groups satisfy purpose, may be to watch a cricket match one’s social and psychological needs or a movie. Audiences are generally passive such as sense of belongingness, giving but sometimes they go into a frenzy and and receiving attention, love, and become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite power through a group. sense of purpose. There is polarisation in Goal achievement : Groups help in attention, and actions of persons are in a achieving such goals which cannot be common direction. Mob behaviour is attained individually. There is power in characterised by homogeneity of thought the majority. and behaviour as well as impulsivity. Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge Why Do People Join Groups? and information and thus broadens our All of you are members of your family, view. As individuals, we may not have class and groups with which you interact all the required information. Groups or play. Similarly, other people are also supplement this infor mation and members of a number of groups at any knowledge. given time. Dif ferent groups satisfy Group Formation different needs, and therefore, we are simultaneously members of dif ferent In this section, we will see how groups are groups. This sometimes creates pressures formed. Basic to group formation is some for us because there may be competing contact and some for m of interaction demands and expectations. Most often we between people. This interaction is are able to handle these competing facilitated by the following conditions: demands and expectations. People join Proximity : Just think about your groups because these groups satisfy a group of friends. Would you have been range of needs. In general, people join friends if you were not living in the groups for the following reasons : same colony, or going to the same Security : When we are alone, we feel school, or may be playing in the same insecure. Groups reduce this playground? Probably your answer insecurity. Being with people gives a would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions sense of comfort, and protection. As a with the same set of individuals give us result, people feel stronger, and are less a chance to know them, and their vulnerable to threats. interests and attitudes. Common Status : When we are members of a interests, attitudes, and background group that is perceived to be important are important determinants of your by others, we feel recognised and liking for your group members. experience a sense of power. Suppose Similarity : Being exposed to someone your school wins in an inter - over a period of time makes us assess institutional debate competition, you our similarities and paves the way for feel proud and think that you are better formation of groups. Why do we like than others. people who are similar? Psychologists Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of have given several explanations for this. self-worth and establish a positive social One explanation is that people prefer identity. Being a member of prestigious consistency and like relationships that groups enhances one’s self-concept. are consistent. When two people are 123 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25  similar, there is consistency and they group, the goal, and how it is to be start liking each other. For example, achieved. People try to know each other you like playing football and another and assess whether they will fit in. person in your class also loves playing There is excitement as well as football; there is a matching of your apprehensions. This stage is called the interests. There are higher chances that forming stage. you may become friends. Another Often, after this stage, there is a stage explanation given by psychologists is of intragroup conflict which is referred that when we meet similar people, they to as storming. In this stage, there is reinforce and validate our opinions and conflict among members about how the values, we feel we are right and thus we target of the group is to be achieved, start liking them. Suppose you are of who is to control the group and its the opinion that too much watching of resources, and who is to perform what television is not good, because it shows task. When this stage is complete, some too much violence. You meet someone sort of hierarchy of leadership in the who also has similar views. This group develops and a clear vision as to validates your opinion, and you start how to achieve the group goal. liking the person who was instrumental The storming stage is followed by in validating your opinion. another stage known as norming. Common motives and goals : When Group members by this time develop people have common motives or goals, norms related to group behaviour. This they get together and form a group leads to development of a positive group which may facilitate their goal identity. attainment. Suppose you want to teach The fourth stage is performing. By this children in a slum area who are unable time, the structure of the group has to go to school. You cannot do this evolved and is accepted by group alone because you have your own members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some studies and homework. You, therefore, groups, this may be the last stage of form a group of like-minded friends and group development. start teaching these children. So you However, for some groups, for example, have been able to achieve what you in the case of an organising committee could not have done alone. Stages of Group Formation Identifying Stages of Group Activity Remember that, like everything else in life, Formation 7.1 groups develop. You do not become a group member the moment you come Select 10 members from your class randomly and form a committee to together. Groups usually go through plan an open house. See how they go different stages of formation, conflict, ahead. Give them full autonomy to do stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. all the planning. Other members of the Tuckman suggested that groups pass class observe them as they function. through five developmental sequences. Do you see any of these stages These are: forming, storming, norming, emerging? Which were those? What was the order of stages? Which stages performing and adjourning. were skipped? When group members first meet, there Discuss in the class. is a great deal of uncertainty about the 124 Psychology 2024-25  for a school function, there may be Four important elements of group another stage known as adjourning structure are : stage. In this stage, once the function Roles are socially defined expectations is over, the group may be disbanded. that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the However, it must be stated that all typical behaviour that depicts a person groups do not always proceed from one in a given social context. You have the stage to the next in such a systematic role of a son or a daughter and with this manner. Sometimes several stages go on role, there are certain role expectations, simultaneously, while in other instances i.e. including the behaviour expected of groups may go back and forth through the someone in a particular role. As a various stages or they may just skip some daughter or a son, you are expected to of the stages. respect elders, listen to them, and be During the process of group formation, responsible towards your studies. groups also develop a structure. We should Nor ms are expected standards of remember that group structure develops behaviour and beliefs established, as members interact. Over time this agreed upon, and enforced by group interaction shows r egularities in members. They may be considered as distribution of task to be per formed, a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your responsibilities assigned to members, and family, there are norms that guide the the prestige or relative status of members. behaviour of family members. These Box 7.1 Groupthink Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions. Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”. It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions. Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives, and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to 1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000 American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits. Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions, and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others. 125 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25  norms represent shared ways of some are short-lived (e.g., a committee), viewing the world. some remain together for many years (e.g., Status refers to the relative social religious groups), some are highly position given to group members by organised (e.g., army, police, etc.), and others. This relative position or status others are informally organised (e.g., may be either ascribed (given may be spectators of a match). People may belong because of one’s seniority) or achieved to different types of group. Major types of (the person has achieved status groups are enumerated below : because of expertise or hard work). By primary and secondary groups being members of the group, we enjoy formal and informal groups the status associated with that group. ingroup and outgroup. All of us, therefor e, strive to be members of such groups which are Primary and Secondary Groups high in status or are viewed favourably A major difference between primary and by others. Even within a group, dif ferent members have dif ferent secondary groups is that primary groups prestige and status. For example, the are pre-existing formations which are captain of a cricket team has a higher usually given to the individual whereas status compared to the other members, secondary groups are those which the although all are equally important for individual joins by choice. Thus, family, the team’s success. caste, and religion are primary groups Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, whereas membership of a political party is binding, or mutual attraction among an example of a secondary group. In a group members. As the group becomes primary group, there is a face-to-face more cohesive, group members start to interaction, members have close physical think, feel and act as a social unit, and proximity, and they share warm emotional less like isolated individuals. Members bonds. Primary groups are central to of a highly cohesive group have a individual’s functioning and have a very greater desire to remain in the group in major role in developing values and ideals comparison to those who belong to low of the individual during the early stages of cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to development. In contrast, secondary the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense groups are those where relationships of belongingness to the group. It is among members are more impersonal, difficult to leave a cohesive group or to indirect, and less frequent. In the primary gain membership of a group which is group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness members do not have the option to choose however, may sometimes not be in a its membership as compared to secondary group’s interest. Psychologists have groups where it is easy to leave and join identified the phenomenon of another group. groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness. Formal and Informal Groups These groups differ in the degree to which TYPE OF GROUPS the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a Groups differ in many respects; some have formal group are explicitly stated as in the a large number of members (e.g., a case of an office organisation. The roles to country), some are small (e.g., a family), be performed by group members are stated 126 Psychology 2024-25 in an explicit manner. The formal and differently and are often perceived negatively infor mal groups differ on the basis of in comparison to the ingroup members. structure. The formation of formal groups Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect is based on some specific rules or laws and our social lives. These differences can be members have definite roles. There are a easily understood by studying Tajfel’s set of norms which help in establishing experiments given in Box 7.2. order. A university is an example of a Although it is common to make these formal group. On the other hand, the categorisations, it should be appreciated formation of informal groups is not based that these categories are not real and are on rules or laws and there is close created by us. In some cultures, plurality relationship among members. is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture which Ingroup and Outgroup is reflected not only in the lives we live, but Just as individuals compare themselves also in our art, architecture, and music. with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have Ingroup and Outgroup Activity and what others have, individuals also Distinctions 7.2 compare the group they belong to with Think of any interinstitutional groups of which they are not a member. competition held in the near past. Ask The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own your friends to write a paragraph group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another about your school and its students, group. For ingroup members, we use the and about another school and word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the students of that school. Ask the class word ‘they’ is used. By using the words and list the behaviour and characteristics of your schoolmates, they and we, one is categorising people as and students of the other school on similar or different. It has been found that the board. Observe the differences persons in the ingroup are generally and discuss in the class. Do you also supposed to be similar, are viewed see similarities? If yes, discuss them favourably, and have desirable traits. too. Members of the outgroup are viewed Box 7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroup behaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school- boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and Paul Klee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew the groups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of other group members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed money between recipients only by code number and group membership. Sample distribution matrix : Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference for paintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed that children favoured their own group. 127 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25  INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in BEHAVIOUR knowing how much noise people make in We have seen that groups are powerful social settings. They varied the group as they are able to influence the size; individuals were either alone, or in behaviour of individuals. What is the groups of two, four and six. The results nature of this influence? What impact of the study showed that although the does the presence of others have on our total amount of noise rose up, as size perfor mance? We will discuss two increased, the amount of noise produced situations : (i) an individual performing by each participant dropped. In other an activity alone in the presence of others words, each participant put in less effort (social facilitation), and (ii) an individual as the group size increased. Why does performing an activity along with the social loafing occur? The explanations others as part of a larger group (social offered are: loafing). Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed Social Loafing and therefore exert less effort. Motivation of members decreases Social facilitation research suggests that because they realise that their presence of others leads to arousal and contributions will not be evaluated on can motivate individuals to enhance their individual basis. performance if they are already good at The performance of the group is not solving something. This enhancement to be compared with other groups. occurs when a person’s efforts are There is an improper coordination (or individually evaluated. What would no coordination) among members. happen if efforts of an individual in a Belonging to the same group is not group are pooled so that you look at the important for members. It is only an performance of the group as a whole? Do aggregate of individuals. you know what often happens? It has been found that individuals work less Social loafing may be reduced by: hard in a group than they do when Making the efforts of each person performing alone. This points to a identifiable. phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Increasing the pressure to work hard Social loafing is a reduction in individual (making group members committed to effort when working on a collective task, successful task performance). i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with Increasing the apparent importance or those of other group members. An value of a task. example of such a task is the game of Making people feel that their tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to individual contribution is important. identify how much force each member of Strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for the team has been exerting. Such successful group outcome. situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free Group Polarisation rider. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by We all know that important decisions are Latane and his associates who asked taken by groups and not by individuals group of male students to clap or cheer alone. For example, a decision is to be 128 Psychology 2024-25 taken whether a school has to be this interaction, your views may become established in a village. Such a decision stronger. This firm conviction is because has to be a group decision. We have also of the following three reasons: seen that when groups take decisions, In the company of like-minded people, there is a fear that the phenomenon of you are likely to hear newer groupthink may sometimes occur (see arguments favouring your viewpoints. Box 7.1). Groups show another tendency This will make you more favourable referred to as ‘group polarisation’. It has towards capital punishment. been found that groups are more likely When you find others also favouring to take extreme decisions than capital punishment, you feel that this individuals alone. Suppose there is an view is validated by the public. This employee who has been caught taking is a sort of bandwagon effect. bribe or engaging in some other When you find people having similar unethical act. Her/his colleagues are views, you are likely to perceive them asked to decide on what punishment s/ as ingroup. You start identifying with he should be given. They may let her/ the group, begin showing conformity, him go scot-free or decide to terminate and as a consequence your views her/his services instead of imposing a become strengthened. punishment which may be commensurate with the unethical act s/ Activity Assessing Polarisation he had engaged in. Whatever the initial 7.3 position in the group, this position Give the class a short, 5-item attitude becomes much stronger as a result of scale developed by your teacher to discussions in the group. This assess attitudes towards capital strengthening of the group’s initial punishment. Based on their responses, position as a result of group interaction divide the class into two groups, i.e. those pro-capital punishment and and discussion is referred to as group those anti-capital punishment. Now polarisation. This may sometimes have seat these groups into two different dangerous repercussions as groups may rooms and ask them to discuss a recent take extreme positions, i.e. from very case in which death sentence has been weak to very strong decisions. given by the court. See how the Why does group polarisation occur? discussion proceeds in the two groups. After the discussion, re-administer the Let us take an example whether capital attitude scale to the group members. punishment should be there. Suppose Examine if, in both groups, positions you favour capital punishment for have hardened in comparison to their heinous crimes, what would happen if initial position as a result of group you were interacting with and discussing discussion. this issue with like-minded people? After Key Terms Cohesiveness, Conflict, Goal achievement, Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Norms, Proximity, Roles, Social influence, Social loafing, Status, Structure. 129 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25  Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles, status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups. Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals. People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and information. Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur. Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and ingroup and outgroup. Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two important influences of groups. Review Questions 1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups. 2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that group. 3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups? 4. How do groups influence our behaviour? 5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How did you overcome it? Project 1. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers Idea of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments? Weblinks http://www.mapnp.org/library/grp_skill/theory/theory.htm http://www.socialpsychology.org/social.htm 130 Psychology 2024-25 Pedagogical Hints 1. In the topic of nature and formation of groups, students should be made to understand the importance of groups in real-life. Here, it needs to be emphasised that they should be careful in choosing groups. Teachers can ask a few students how they have become members of different groups, and what do they get from membership in these groups. 2. For explaining social loafing, simple experiments can be conducted in the class by asking students to perform some activities in groups and then asking them about their contributions in the activities undertaken. Learning experience for students should be on ways to avoid social loafing. 131 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 2024-25