Attitude and Social Cognition PDF

AT TITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand what are attitudes, how they are formed and changed. Introduction Explaining Social Behaviour Nature and Components of Attitudes A...

AT TITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand what are attitudes, how they are formed and changed. Introduction Explaining Social Behaviour Nature and Components of Attitudes A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude (Box 6.1) Attitude Formation and Change Attitude Formation Attitude Change Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars (Box 6.2) Attitude-Behaviour Relationship CONTENTS Prejudice and Discrimination Strategies for Handling Prejudice Key Terms Summary Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 104 Psychology 2024-25  Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how the behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment. All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet, explaining Introduction the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter. This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, as explained by social psychologists. important are these opinions to you? The EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR topics of some of these opinions may be only Social behaviour is a necessary part of moderately important to you; they are human life, and being social means much simply ways of thinking, and it does not more than merely being in the company of matter much to you that others agree or others. You may recall from what you disagree with your views. On the other studied in Class XI that social psychology hand, you may find that some other topics deals with all behaviour that takes place in are extremely important to you. If someone the actual, imagined, or implied presence opposes or challenges your views about of others. Social psychologists examine these topics, you get emotional. You may various forms of social behaviour, and try have made some of these views part of your to explain their basis. Because of social behaviour. In other words, if your views are influences, people form views, or attitudes not mer ely thoughts, but also have about people, and about different issues in emotional and action components, then life, that exist in the form of behavioural these views are more than ‘opinions’; they tendencies. In order to understand are examples of attitudes. completely how the social context All definitions of attitudes agree that an influences the individual, it is necessary attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, to study both social-cognitive processes or thoughts, regarding some topic (called and social behaviour. Social psychologists the ‘attitude object’), which have an have shown that one must go beyond evaluative feature (positive, negative or common sense and folk wisdom in order neutral quality). It is accompanied by an to explain how people observe and make emotional component, and a tendency to sense of their own and others’ diverse act in a particular way with regard to the behaviours. attitude object. The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect, the emotional component is known as the NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES affective aspect, and the tendency to act is called the behavioural (or conative) For a few minutes quietly do the following aspect. Taken together, these three mental exercise. Today, how many times did aspects have been referred to as the A-B- you tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or C components (Affective-Behavioural- “Others may say so and so, but I feel…”? Cognitive components) of attitude. Note What you fill in the blanks are called that attitudes are themselves not opinions. Now continue the exercise : how 105 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25 behaviour, but they represent a tendency situations. For example, our attitude to behave or act in certain ways. They towards foreigners may indirectly provide are part of cognition, along with an a mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way emotional component, and cannot be in which we should behave whenever we observed from outside. Box 6.1 presents meet one. an example of an attitude towards the In addition to the affective, cognitive and environment, showing the relationship behavioural components, attitudes also between the three components. have other properties. Four significant Attitudes have to be distinguished from features of attitudes are : Valence (positivity two other closely related concepts, or negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity or namely, beliefs and values. Beliefs refer Complexity (multiplexity), and Centrality. to the cognitive component of attitudes, Valence (positivity or negativity) : The and form the ground on which attitudes valence of an attitude tells us whether an stand, such as belief in God, or belief in attitude is positive or negative towards the democracy as a political ideology. Values attitude object. Suppose an attitude (say, are attitudes or beliefs that contain a towards nuclear research) has to be ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral expressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from or ethical values. One example of a value 1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neither is the idea that one should work hard, or good nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Very that one should always be honest, good). If an individual rates her/his view because honesty is the best policy. Values towards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this is are formed when a particular belief or clearly a positive attitude. This means that attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person likes the idea of nuclear research the person’s outlook on life. Consequently, and thinks it is something good. On the values are difficult to change. other hand, if the rating is 1 or 2, the What is the purpose served by an attitude is negative. This means that the attitude? We find that attitudes provide a person dislikes the idea of nuclear research, background that makes it easier for a and thinks it is something bad. We also person to decide how to act in new allow for neutral attitudes. In this Box 6.1 A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude Suppose a group of people in your neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part of a ‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment, your view towards a ‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, along with the evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angry when you see trees being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’ component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively participate in the tree plantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towards a ‘green environment’. In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with each other, that is, in the same direction. However, such consistency may not necessarily be found in all situations. For example, it is quite possible that the cognitive aspect of your ‘green environment’ attitude is very strong, but the affective and behavioural components may be relatively weaker. Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong and positive, but the behavioural component may be neutral. Therefore, predicting one component on the basis of the other two may not always give us the correct picture about an attitude. 106 Psychology 2024-25 example, a neutral attitude towards attitude towards high military expenditure nuclear research would be shown by a may be present as a core or central rating of 3 on the same scale. A neutral attitude that influences all other attitudes attitude would have neither positive nor in the multiple attitude system. negative valence. Extremeness : The extremeness of an ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE attitude indicates how positive or negative an attitude is. T aking the nuclear Attitude Formation research example given above, a rating of One important question that psychologists 1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they are are interested in answering is : how are only in the opposite directions (valence). attitudes formed? Like many other thoughts Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A and concepts that develop and become part neutral attitude, of course, is lowest on of our cognitive system, attitudes towards extremeness. different topics, things and people also are Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) : formed as we interact with others. However, This feature refers to how many attitudes there are specific conditions that lead to the there are within a broader attitude. Think formation of specific attitudes. of an attitude as a family containing several In general, attitudes ar e lear ned ‘member’ attitudes. In case of various topics, through one’s own experiences, and such as health and world peace, people hold through interaction with others. There are many attitudes instead of single attitude. a few research studies that show some sort An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it of inborn aspect of attitudes, but such contains only one or a few attitudes, and genetic factors influence attitudes only ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes. indirectly, along with learning. Therefore, Consider the example of attitude towards most social psychologists have focused on health and well-being. This attitude system the conditions which lead to the learning is likely to consist of several ‘member’ of attitudes. attitudes, such as one’s concept of physical and mental health, views about happiness Process of Attitude Formation and well-being, and beliefs about how one should achieve health and happiness. By The processes and conditions of learning contrast, the attitude towards a particular may be different, resulting in varying person is likely to consist of mainly one attitudes among people. attitude. The multiple member-attitudes Learning attitudes by association : You within an attitude system should not be might have seen that students often confused with the three components develop a liking for a particular subject described earlier. Each member attitude because of the teacher. This is because that belongs to an attitude system also has they see many positive qualities in that A-B-C components. teacher; these positive qualities get Centrality : This refers to the role of a linked to the subject that s/he particular attitude in the attitude system. teaches, and ultimately get expressed An attitude with greater centrality would in the form of liking for the subject. influence the other attitudes in the system In other words, a positive attitude much more than non-central (or peripheral) towards the subject is learned through attitudes would. For example, in the the positive association between a attitude towards world peace, a negative teacher and a student. 107 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25  Learning attitudes by being rewarded When individuals see that such or punished : If an individual is praised behaviour is shown by others, is for showing a particular attitude, expected and socially approved, they chances are high that s/he will develop may ultimately develop a positive that attitude further. For example, if attitude towards such behaviour and the a teenager does yogasanas regularly, associated feelings of devotion. and gets the honour of being ‘Miss Good Learning through exposure to Health’ in her school, she may develop information : Many attitudes are learned a positive attitude towards yoga and in a social context, but not necessarily health in general. Similarly, if a child in the physical presence of others. constantly falls ill because s/he eats Today, with the huge amount of junk food instead of proper meals, then information that is being provided the child is likely to develop a negative through various media, both positive attitude towards junk food, and also a and negative attitudes are being formed. positive attitude towards eating healthy By reading the biographies of self- food. actualised persons, an individual may Learning attitudes through modelling develop a positive attitude towards hard (observing others) : Often it is not work and other aspects as the means of through association, or through reward achieving success in life. and punishment, that we learn attitudes. Instead, we learn them by Factors that Influence Attitude Formation observing others being rewarded or The following factors provide the context for punished for expressing thoughts, or the learning of attitudes through the showing behaviour of a particular kind processes described above. towards the attitude object. For example, children may form a respectful 1. Family and School Environment : attitude towards elders, by observing Particularly in the early years of life, that their parents show respect for parents and other family members play elders, and are appreciated for it. a significant role in shaping attitude Learning attitudes through group or formation. Later, the school cultural norms : Very often, we learn environment becomes an important attitudes through the norms of our background for attitude formation. group or culture. Norms are unwritten Learning of attitudes within the family rules about behaviour that everyone is and school usually takes place by supposed to show under specific association, through rewards and circumstances. Over time, these norms punishments, and through modelling. may become part of our social cognition, 2. Reference Groups : Reference groups in the form of attitudes. Learning indicate to an individual the norms attitudes through group or cultural regarding acceptable behaviour and norms may actually be an example of ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect all three forms of learning described learning of attitudes through group or above — learning through association, cultural norms. Attitudes towards reward or punishment, and modelling. various topics, such as political, For example, offering money, sweets, religious and social groups, fruit and flowers in a place of worship is occupations, national and other issues a normative behaviour in some religions. are often developed through reference 108 Psychology 2024-25  groups. Their influence is noticeable gathered, and therefore no control over especially during the beginning of the attitudes that are being formed, or adolescence, at which time it is the direction of change in the existing important for the individual to feel that attitudes. The media can be used to s/he belongs to a group. Therefore, the create consumerist attitudes where role of reference groups in attitude none existed, and can also be harnessed formation may also be a case of learning to create positive attitudes to facilitate through reward and punishment. social harmony. 3. Personal Experiences : Many attitudes Attitude Change ar e for med, not in the family environment or through reference During the process of attitude formation, groups, but through direct personal and also after this process, attitudes may experiences which bring about a drastic be changed and modified through various change in our attitude towards people influences. Some attitudes change more and our own life. Here is a real-life than others do. Attitudes that are still in example. A driver in the army went the formative stage, and are more like through a personal experience that opinions, are much more likely to change transformed his life. On one mission, he compared to attitudes that have become narrowly escaped death although all his firmly established, and have become a part companions got killed. Wondering about of the individual’s values. From a practical the purpose of his own life, he gave up point of view, bringing about a change in his job in the army, returned to his people’s attitudes is of interest to native village in Maharashtra, and community leaders, politicians, producers worked actively as a community leader. of consumer goods, advertisers, and others. Through a purely personal experience Unless we find out how attitudes change, this individual evolved a strong positive and what conditions account for such attitude towards community upliftment. change, it would not be possible to take His efforts completely changed the face steps to bring about attitude change. of his village. Process of Attitude Change 4. Media-related Influences : Technological advances in recent times have made Three major concepts that draw attention audio-visual media and the Internet very to some important processes in attitude powerful sources of information that change are described below : lead to attitude formation and change. (a) The concept of balance, proposed by In addition, school level textbooks also Fritz Heider is sometimes described in the influence attitude formation. These for m of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which sources first strengthen the cognitive represents the relationships between three and affective components of attitudes, aspects or components of the attitude. P is and subsequently may also affect the the person whose attitude is being studied, behavioural component. The media can O is another person, and X is the topic exert both good and bad influences on towards which the attitude is being studied attitudes. On one hand, the media and (attitude object). It is also possible that all Internet make people better informed three are persons. than other modes of communication. On The basic idea is that an attitude the other hand, there may be no check changes if there is a state of imbalance on the nature of information being between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, 109 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25 and P-X attitude. This is because think about the following ideas imbalance is logically uncomfortable. (‘cognitions’) : Therefore, the attitude changes in the Cognition I : Pan masala causes direction of balance. mouth cancer which is fatal. Imbalance is found when (i) all three Cognition II : I eat pan masala. sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or Holding these two ideas or cognitions (ii) two sides are positive, and one side is will make any individual feel that something negative. Balance is found when (i) all three is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude sides are positive, or (ii) two sides are towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these negative, and one side is positive. ideas will have to be changed, so that Consider the example of dowry as an consonance can be attained. In the example attitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) has given above, in order to remove or reduce a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X the dissonance, I will stop eating pan positive). P is planning to get his son masala (change Cognition II). This would married to the daughter of some person (O) be the healthy, logical and sensible way of who has a negative attitude towards dowry reducing dissonance. (O-X negative). What would be the nature Festinger and Carlsmith, two social of the P-O attitude, and how would it psychologists, conducted an experiment determine balance or imbalance in the that showed how cognitive dissonance situation? If O initially has a positive works (see Box 6.2). attitude towards P, the situation would be Both balance and cognitive dissonance unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive, are examples of cognitive consistency. but O-X is negative. That is, there are two Cognitive consistency means that two positives and one negative in the triangle. components, aspects or elements of the This is a situation of imbalance. One of the attitude, or attitude system, must be in three attitudes will therefore have to the same direction. Each element should change. This change could take place in the logically fall in line with other elements. P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry If this does not happen, then the person as a custom), or in the O-X relationship (O experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e. starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the the sense that ‘something is not quite right’ O-P relationship (O starts disliking P). In in the attitude system. In such a state, some short, an attitude change will have to take aspect in the attitude system changes in place so that there will be three positive the direction of consistency, because our relationships, or two negative and one cognitive system requires logical positive relationship, in the triangle. consistency. (b) The concept of cognitive dissonance (c) The two-step concept was proposed by was proposed by Leon Festinger. It S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist. emphasises the cognitive component. Here According to him, attitude change takes the basic idea is that the cognitive place in the form of two steps. In the first components of an attitude must be step, the target of change identifies with the ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e., source. The ‘target’ is the person whose they should be logically in line with each attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is other. If an individual finds that two the person through whose influence the cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, change is to take place. Identification then one of them will be changed in means that the target has liking and the direction of consonance. For example, regard for the source. S/he puts herself/ 110 Psychology 2024-25 himself in the place of the target, and tries sportsperson must first show positive to feel like her/him. The source must also feelings for her/his fans, and then actually have a positive attitude towards the target, change her/his own habit of consuming and the regard and attraction becomes that soft drink (Step I) — perhaps by mutual. In the second step, the source substituting it with a health drink. If the herself/himself shows an attitude sportsperson actually changes her/his change, by actually changing her/him behaviour, it is very likely that now Preeti behaviour towards the attitude object. will also change her attitude and Observing the source’s changed attitude behaviour, and stop consuming the and behaviour, the target also shows an harmful soft drink (Step II). attitude change through behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or observational Factors that Influence Attitude Change learning. Whether attitudes will change, and if so, Consider the following example of two- to what extent, is a question that puzzles step attitude change. Preeti reads in the many psychologists. However, most of newspapers that a particular soft drink that them agree upon the following major she enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preeti factors that influence attitude change : sees that her favourite sportsperson has been advertising the same soft drink. She Characteristics of the existing attitude : has identified herself with the sportsperson, All four properties of attitudes mentioned and would like to imitate her/him. Now, earlier, namely, valence (positivity or suppose the sportsperson wishes to change negativity), extremeness, simplicity or people’s attitude towards this soft drink complexity (multiplexity), and centrality from positive to negative. The or significance of the attitude, determine Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars Box 6.2 After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tell another group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. For telling this lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, and the other half were paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experiment were asked to recall the experiment, and to say how interesting they had found that experiment to be. The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment as more interesting than the $ 20 group. The explanation was : the $ 1 students changed their attitude towards the experiment because they experienced cognitive dissonance. In the $ 1 group, The initial cognitions would be : The changed cognitions would be: (Dissonant cognitions) (Dissonance reduced) “The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ; “I told the waiting students that it “I told the waiting students that it was was interesting”; interesting” ; “I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.” The $ 20 group did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change their attitude towards the experiment, and rated it as very boring. The cognitions in the $ 20 (No dissonance) group would be : “The experiment was very boring”; “I told the waiting students that it was interesting”; “I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.” 111 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25 attitude change. In general, positive cavities, they may not believe the attitudes are easier to change than negative pictures, and may become less positive attitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and about dental care. Research has found central attitudes are more difficult to change that fear sometimes works well in than the less extreme, and peripheral (less convincing people but if a message significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes generates too much fear, it turns off the are easier to change than multiple receiver and has little persuasive effect. attitudes are. Source characteristics : Source In addition, one must also consider the credibility and attractiveness are two direction and extent of attitude change. An features that affect attitude change. attitude change may be congruent — it Attitudes are more likely to change when may change in the same direction as the the message comes from a highly credible existing attitude (for example, a positive source rather than from a low-credible attitude may become more positive, or a source. For example, adults who are negative attitude may become more planning to buy a laptop are more negative). For instance, suppose a person convinced by a computer engineer who has a somewhat positive attitude towards points out the special features of a empowerment of women. Reading about particular brand of laptop, than they a successful woman may make this would be by a schoolchild who might give attitude more positive. This would be a the same information. But, if the buyers congruent change. On the other hand, an are themselves schoolchildren, they may attitude change may be incongruent — be convinced more by another schoolchild it may change in a direction opposite to advertising a laptop than they would be the existing attitude (for example, a by a professional giving the same positive attitude becomes less positive, or information (see Figure 6.1). In the case negative, or a negative attitude becomes of some products such as cars, sales may less negative, or positive). In the example increase if they are publicised, not just given, after reading about successful necessarily by experts, but by popular women, a person may think that women public figures. might soon become too powerful, and Message characteristics : The message neglect their family responsibilities. This is the information that is presented in may make the person’s existing positive order to bring about an attitude change. attitude towards empowerment of women, Attitudes will change when the amount less positive, or even negative. If this of information that is given about the topic happens, then it would be a case of is just enough, neither too much nor too incongruent change. It has been found little. Whether the message contains a that, in general, congruent changes are rational or an emotional appeal, also easier to bring about than are the makes a difference. For example, an incongruent changes in attitudes. advertisement for cooking food in a Moreover, an attitude may change in pressure cooker may point out that this the direction of the information that is saves fuel such as cooking gas (LPG) and presented, or in a direction opposite to is economical (rational appeal). that of the information presented. Posters Alternatively, the advertisement may say describing the importance of brushing that pressure-cooking preserves nutrition, one’s teeth would strengthen a positive and that if one cares for the family, attitude towards dental care. But if people nutrition would be a major concern are shown frightening pictures of dental (emotional appeal) (see Figure 6.2). 112 Psychology 2024-25  My laptop is my key to success — 100 GB storage capacity, My laptop is my key light in weight, can to success — 100 GB do wonders for me !! storage capacity, Buy one now, and light in weight, can see how you grow !! do wonders for me !! Buy one now, and see how you grow !! Picture A Picture B Fig.6.1 : Which Picture will Make You More Eager to Buy a Laptop – Picture A, or Picture B ? Why? The motives activated by the message make a person healthy and good-looking, also determine attitude change. For or more energetic and more successful at example, drinking milk may be said to one’s job. Rational appeal Emotional appeal (saving money) (caring for your family) Are you spending too If you care for your much on cooking gas? family, nothing is Switch to the pressure more important than cooker, and say nutrition. Switch to goodbye to your the pressure cooker, budget problems! and ensure healthy eating! Fig.6.2 : Rational and Emotional Appeals 113 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25  “ORS will protect your child “ORS will from heat protect your in the child from summer” heat in the summer” Fig.6.3 : Face-to-face Interaction versus Media Transmission. Which one works better? Why? Finally, the mode of spreading more easily. Advertisers benefit most from the message plays a significant role. such people. People with strong prejudices Face-to-face transmission of the message are less prone to any attitude change than is usually more effective than indirect those who do not hold strong prejudices. transmission, as for instance, through Persons who have a low self-esteem, and letters and pamphlets, or even through do not have sufficient confidence in mass media. For example, a positive themselves, change their attitudes more attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts easily than those who are high on self- (ORS) for young children is more esteem. More intelligent people may effectively created if community social change their attitudes less easily than workers and doctors spread the message those with lower intelligence. However, by talking to people directly, than by only sometimes more intelligent persons describing the benefits of ORS on the radio change their attitudes more willingly than (see Figure 6.3). These days transmission less intelligent ones, because they base through visual media such as television their attitude on more information and the Internet are similar to face-to- and thinking. face interaction, but not a substitute for the latter. Attitude-Behaviour Relationship Target characteristics : Qualities of the We usually expect behaviour to follow target, such as persuasibility, strong logically from attitudes. However, an prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence individual’s attitudes may not always be influence the likelihood and extent of exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, attitude change. People, who have a more one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to open and flexible personality, change one’s attitude towards a particular topic. 114 Psychology 2024-25  Psychologists have found that there occasions they were refused service by one would be consistency between attitudes of the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent and behaviour when : out questionnaires to managers of hotels the attitude is strong, and occupies a and tourist homes in the same areas where central place in the attitude system, the Chinese couple had travelled, asking the person is aware of her/his them if they would give accommodation to attitude, Chinese guests. A very large percentage said there is very little or no external that they would not do so. This response pressure for the person to behave in a showed a negative attitude towards the particular way. For example, when Chinese, which was inconsistent with the there is no group pressure to follow a positive behaviour that was actually shown particular norm, towards the travelling Chinese couple. Thus, attitudes may not always predict the person’s behaviour is not being actual pattern of one’s behaviour. watched or evaluated by others, and Sometimes it is behaviour that decides the person thinks that the behaviour the attitude. In the experiment by would have a positive consequence, and Festinger and Carlsmith (see Box 6.2), therefore, intends to engage in that students who got only one dollar for telling behaviour. others that the experiment was interesting, discovered that they liked the experiment. Cut out an advertisement from a That is, on the basis of their behaviour Activity (telling others that the experiment was 6.1 newspaper or magazine, that contains something special and interesting, for only a small amount of catches your attention. Write down money), they concluded that their attitude the following details about that towards the experiment was positive (“I advertisement, and present it to your class. would not have told a lie for this small The topic of the advertisement amount of money, which means that the (for example, whether the experiment was actually interesting”). advertisement is about a consumer product, some food, a company, a health matter, a PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION national theme, etc.). Prejudices are examples of attitudes Good and bad consequences of the advertisement. towards a particular group. They are Whether it contains an emotional usually negative, and in many cases, may appeal or a rational appeal. be based on stereotypes (the cognitive Whether it contains a popular component) about the specific group. As will figure : an expert source, or a be discussed below in the section on social well-liked person. cognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group. All members belonging to this In the days when Americans were said group are assumed to possess these to be prejudiced against the Chinese, characteristics. Often, stereotypes consist Richard LaPiere, an American social of undesirable characteristics about the psychologist, conducted the following target group, and they lead to negative study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel attitudes or prejudices towards members across the United States, and stay in of specific groups. The cognitive different hotels. Only once during these component of prejudice is frequently 115 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25 accompanied by dislike or hatred, the and show low adjusting capacity, affective component. Prejudice may also anxiety, and feelings of hostility against get translated into discrimination, the the outgroup. behavioural component, whereby people A strong social identity and ingroup bias : behave in a less positive way towards a Individuals who have a strong sense of particular target group compared to social identity and have a very positive another group which they favour. History attitude towards their own group boost contains numerous examples of this attitude by holding negative discrimination based on race and social attitudes towards other groups. These class or caste. The genocide committed are shown as prejudices. by the Nazis in Germany against Jewish Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon by people is an extreme example of how which the majority group places the prejudice can lead to hatred, blame on a minority outgroup for its own discrimination and mass killing of social, economic or political problems. innocent people. The minority is too weak or too small in Prejudices can exist without being number to defend itself against such shown in the form of discrimination. accusations. Scapegoating is a group- Similarly, discrimination can be shown based way of expressing frustration, and without prejudice. Yet, the two go together it often results in negative attitudes or very often. Wherever prejudice and prejudice against the weaker group. discrimination exist, conflicts are very Kernel of truth concept : Sometimes likely to arise between groups within the people may continue to hold same society. Our own society has stereotypes because they think that, witnessed many deplorable instances of after all, there must be some truth, or discrimination, with and without ‘kernel of truth’ in what everyone says prejudice, based on gender, religion, about the other group. Even a few community, caste, physical handicap, and examples are sufficient to support the illnesses such as AIDS. Moreover, in ‘kernel of truth’ idea. many cases discriminatory behaviour can Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases, be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and the group that is the target of prejudice emotional components of prejudice are is itself responsible for continuing the more difficult to change. prejudice. The target group may behave Social psychologists have shown that in ways that justify the prejudice, that prejudice has one or more of the following is, confirm the negative expectations. sources : For example, if the target group is Lear ning : Like other attitudes, described as ‘dependent’ and therefore prejudices can also be learned through unable to make progress, the members association, reward and punishment, of this target group may actually behave observing others, group or cultural in a way that proves this description to norms and exposure to information that be true. In this way, they strengthen encourages prejudice. The family, the existing prejudice. reference groups, personal experiences and the media may play a role in the learning of prejudices (see section on STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE ‘Attitude Formation and Change’). Knowing about the causes or sources People who learn prejudiced attitudes would be the first step in handling may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’, 116 Psychology 2024-25 prejudice. Thus, the strategies for mistrust between the groups, and even handling prejudice would be effective if discovery of positive qualities in the they aim at : outgroup. However, these strategies (a) minimising opportunities for learning are successful only if : prejudices, - the two groups meet in a cooperative (b) changing such attitudes, rather than competitive context, (c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity - close interactions between the based on the ingroup, and groups helps them to know each (d) discouraging the tendency towards other better, and self-fulfilling prophecy among the - the two groups are not different in victims of prejudice. power or status. These goals can be accomplished Highlighting individual identity rather through : than group identity, thus weakening Education and infor mation the importance of group (both ingroup dissemination, for correcting stereotypes and outgroup) as a basis of evaluating related to specific target groups, and the other person. More details about tackling the problem of a strong social identity and intergroup conflict ingroup bias. have been presented in the next Increasing intergroup contact allows for chapter on Social Influence and Group direct communication, removal of Processes. Key Terms Attitudes, Balance, Beliefs, Centrality of attitude, Cognitive consistency, Cognitive dissonance, Congruent attitude change, Discrimination, Extremeness of attitude, Identification, Incongruent attitude change, Kernel of truth, Persuasibility, Prejudice, Scapegoating, Self-fulfilling prophecy, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of attitude, Valence of attitude, Values. Human beings have a need to interact with and relate to others, and to explain their own as well as others’ behaviour. People develop attitudes, or thoughts and behavioural tendencies, through learning processes, family and school influences, reference groups and the media. Attitudes have an affective, cognitive and behavioural component, and can be understood in terms of valence, extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality. Attitude change takes according to the balance concept, cognitive consonance and the two-step concept. Attitude change is affected by characteristics of the source, the target, and the message. Negative attitudes (prejudices) towards a group often create conflicts within a society, and are expressed through discrimination, but there are practical strategies for handling prejudice. 117 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25  Review Questions 1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude. 2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how? 3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude? 4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example. 5. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype. 6. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment. 7. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change in her/his attitude towards food? Project 1. Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A Survey Ideas The problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities. The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extent citizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Along with some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out what people do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony, and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must be written down. 1. What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ? 2. What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys, containers etc.)? 3. How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)? 4. How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g. torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containers etc.)? 5. Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or do you put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets? 6. What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhood and where is it taken? 7. What is the meaning of ‘recycling’? 8. What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean? Compare the responses collected by all the students, and see what kind of attitudes and awareness people show about waste management at the household level. 2. Interpersonal Judgment Exercise The following exercise will help you to see how well you and your best friend know each other. For each quality listed below, give ratings for yourself (Column 1) and for your best friend in your class (Column 2). Also ask your friend to do the same kind of rating, for himself/herself (Column 1) and for you (Column 2). Use the following rating scale : 1 2 3 4 5 Very low Low Neither low High Very high on the quality nor high on the quality After you and your friend have completed the ratings, copy Column 2 ratings from your friend’s sheet on your sheet, under Column 3. Compare Column 3 ratings with 118 Psychology 2024-25 Column 1 ratings in the case of each quality. Ask your friend to do the same task – that is, copy Column 2 ratings from your sheet on her/his sheet, under Column 3, and compare these ratings with her/his Column 1 ratings. Enter Column 3 minus Column 1 under Column 4. Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 You rate You rate Rating of you Column 3 yourself your friend by your friend minus Column 1 Friendly Tense Sincere Pleasant Open to new ideas Examine the following. Are there any zeros in Column 4? On which quality is the difference greatest? On which quality is the difference smallest (other than zero)? In general, have you given yourself a higher or lower rating than what your friend has given you? Has your friend given herself/himself a higher or lower rating than what you have given your friend? The sign of the difference (plus or minus) should be noted only to see the direction of the difference. The closer the ratings between Column 1 and Column 3 for both of you, the better you know each other. You can also compare your Column 1 with your friend’s Column 1. The more similar these two ratings are, the greater the similarity between you and your friend. Weblinks http://tip.psychology.org/attitude.html Pedagogical Hints 1. In the topic of attitudes, students should be made to understand the distinction between attitudes as such (with the A-B-C components) on one hand, and behaviour related to the attitude, on the other. 2. To explain attitude change, students may be encouraged to think of real- life examples of attitude change, for instance, attempts made by advertisers to pr omote their products through media. Then discuss whether these attempts to change attitude are actually successful or not. 119 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 2024-25