Meeting Life Challenges PDF 2024-25 OCR

MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature, types and sources of stress as life challenges, examine the effects of stress on psychological functioning, learn ways to cope with stress, know about the life skil...

MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature, types and sources of stress as life challenges, examine the effects of stress on psychological functioning, learn ways to cope with stress, know about the life skills that help people to stay healthy, and understand the factors that promote positive health and well-being. Introduction Nature, Types and Sources of Stress A Measure of Stressful Life Events (Box 3.1) Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health Examination Anxiety (Box 3.2) Stress and Health General Adaptation Syndrome Stress and Immune System Lifestyle Coping with Stress CONTENTS Stress Management Techniques Promoting Positive Health and Well-being Life Skills Resilience and Health (Box 3.3) Key Terms Summary Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 50 Psychology 2024-25  Raj has been studying for his final examination which is going to take place tomorrow morning. He studies till 1 a.m. in the night. Unable to concentrate any more, he sets the alarm for 6 a.m. and tries to go off to sleep. As he is very tense, he keeps tossing and turning in bed. Images flash through his mind of not being able to secure the marks he needs to opt for the subjects of his choice. He blames himself for fooling around with his friends and not preparing thoroughly for the examination. In the morning he wakes up with a heavy head, misses breakfast, and barely makes it in Introduction time to school for his examination. He opens the question paper, his heart pounding, hands clammy with sweat and then he feels his mind has gone completely blank. Some of you may have lived through an experience such as Raj’s. The challenge posed by examinations is common to all students. You are perhaps, already thinking about a career. What if you are denied this choice? Will you give up? Life poses challenges all the time. Think of a child who loses her/his parents at a young age with no one to take care of her/him; a young woman who loses her husband in a car accident; parents who bring up children who are physically or mentally challenged; young girls/boys who have to spend long nights in call centres and then catch up on their sleep during the day time. Look around yourself and you will find that life is a big challenge. All of us try to meet these challenges in our own way. Some of us succeed while others succumb to such life stresses. Life challenges are not necessarily stressful. Much depends on how a challenge is viewed. A number 11 batsman in a cricket team will view facing a fast bowler’s delivery differently than would an opening batsman, who will look forward to such a challenge. It is said that one’s best comes out when one is challenged. We will like to consider in this chapter how a life condition turns into a challenge or a cause of stress. Further, we will also see how people respond to various life challenges as well as stressful situations. probability of one’s survival. Stress is like NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS electricity. It gives energy, increases While waiting to cross the road on a busy human arousal and affects performance. Monday morning, you may be temporarily However, if the electric current is too high, stressed. But, because you are alert, it can fuse bulbs, damage appliances, etc. vigilant and aware of the danger, you are High stress too can produce unpleasant able to cross the road safely. Faced with effects and cause our performance to any challenge, we put in additional efforts deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress and mobilise all our resources and the may cause one to feel somewhat listless support system to meet the challenge. All and low on motivation which may lead us the challenges, problems, and difficult to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is circumstances put us to stress. Thus, if important to remember that not all stress handled properly, stress increases the is inherently bad or destructive. ‘Eustress’ 51 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 is the term used to describe the level of demand” that is, regardless of the cause of stress that is good for you and is one of the threat, the individual will respond with a person’s best assets for achieving peak the same physiological pattern of reactions. performance and managing minor crisis. Many researchers do not agree with this Eustress, however, has the potential of definition as they feel that the stress turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter response is not nearly as general and non- manifestation of stress that causes our specific as Selye suggests. Dif ferent body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be stressors may produce somewhat different described as the pattern of responses an patterns of stress reaction, and different organism makes to stimulus event that individuals may have dif ferent disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a characteristic modes of response. You may person’s ability to cope. recall the case of an opening batsman mentioned earlier. Each one of us will see Nature of Stress the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our The word stress has its origin in the Latin ability to meet them, which will determine words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not. and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to Stress is not a factor that resides in the tighten. These root words reflect the individual or the environment, instead it is inter nal feelings of tightness and embedded in an ongoing process that constriction of the muscles and breathing involves individuals transacting with their reported by many people under stress. social and cultural environments, making Stress is often explained in terms of appraisals of those encounters and characteristics of the environment that are attempting to cope with the issues that disruptive to the individual. Stressors are arise. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive events that cause our body to give the state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or stress response. Such events include an imbalance that gives rise to a noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the requirement for resolution of that daily commuting to school or office. The imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. reaction to external stressors is called The perception of stress is dependent ‘strain’ (see Fig.3.1). upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of Stress has come to be associated with events and the resources available to deal both the causes as well as effects. However, with them. The stress process, based on this view of stress can cause confusion. the cognitive theory of stress propounded Hans Selye, the father of modern stress by Lazarus and his colleagues, is described research, defined stress as “the non- in Figure 3.2. An individual’s response to specific response of the body to any a stressful situation largely depends upon Fig.3.1 : Psychological Meaning of Stress 52 Psychology 2024-25 the perceived events and how they are are likely to make a secondary appraisal, interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has which is the assessment of one’s coping distinguished between two types of abilities and resources and whether they appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary. will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat Primary appraisal refers to the perception or challenge of the event. These resources of a new or changing environment as may be mental, physical, personal or positive, neutral or negative in its social. If one thinks one has a positive consequences. Negative events ar e attitude, health, skills and social support appraised for their possible harm, threat to deal with the crises s/he will feel less or challenge. Harm is the assessment of stressed. This two-level appraisal process the damage that has already been done by determines not only our cognitive and an event. Threat is the assessment of behavioural r esponses but also our possible future damage that may be emotional and physiological responses to brought about by the event. Challenge external events. appraisals ar e associated with more These appraisals are very subjective confident expectations of the ability to cope and will depend on many factors. One with the stressful event, the potential to factor is the past experience of dealing overcome and even profit from the event. with such a stressful condition. If one When we perceive an event as stressful, we has handled similar situations very Fig.3.2 : A General Model of the Stress Process 53 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 successfully in the past, they would be less (flight) are two general categories of threatening for her/him. Another factor is behavioural responses. Cognitive whether the stressful event is perceived as responses include beliefs about the harm controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or threat an event poses and beliefs about or control over a situation. A person who its causes or controllability. These include believes that s/he can control the onset of responses such as inability to concentrate, a negative situation, or its adverse and intrusive, repetitive or morbid consequences, will experience less amount thoughts. of stress than those who have no such As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresses sense of personal control. For example, a which people experience also vary in terms sense of self-confidence or efficacy can of intensity (low intensity vs. high determine whether the person is likely to intensity), duration (short-term vs. long- appraise the situation as a threat or a term), complexity ( less complex vs. more challenge. Thus, the experience and complex) and predictability (unexpected outcome of a stressor may vary from vs. predictable). The outcome of stress individual to individual. Stress, includes all depends on the position of a particular those environmental and personal events, stressful experience along these which challenge or threaten the well-being dimensions. Usually more intense, of a person. These stressors can be prolonged or chronic, complex and external, such as environmental (noise, air unanticipated stresses have more negative pollution), social (break-up with a friend, consequences than have less intense, loneliness) or psychological (conflict, short-term, less complex and expected frustration) within the individual. stresses. An individual’s experiences of Very often, these stressors result in a stress depend on the physiological strength variety of stress reactions, which may be of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physiological, behavioural, emotional, and physical health and weak constitution cognitive (see Fig.3.2). At the physiological would be more vulnerable than would be level, arousal plays a key role in stress- those who enjoy good health and strong related behaviours. The hypothalamus constitution. initiates action along two pathways. The Psychological characteristics like first pathway involves the autonomic mental health, temperament, and self- nervous system. The adrenal gland concept are relevant to the experience of releases large amount of catecholamines stress. The cultural context in which we (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the live determines the meaning of any event blood stream. This leads to physiological and defines the nature of response that is changes seen in fight-or-flight response. expected under various conditions. Finally, The second pathway involves the pituitary the stress experience will be determined by gland, which secretes the corticosteroid the resources of the person, such as (cortisol) which provides energy. The money, social skills, coping style, support emotional reactions to experience of stress networks, etc. All these factors determine include negative emotions such as fear, the appraisal of a given stressful situation. anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression Signs and Symptoms of Stress or even denial. The behavioural responses are virtually limitless, depending on the The way we respond to stress varies nature of the stressful event. Confrontative depending upon our personality, early action against the stressor (fight) or upbringing and life experiences. Everyone withdrawal from the threatening event has their own pattern of stress response. 54 Psychology 2024-25 So the warning signs may vary, as may that are often unavoidable such as air their intensity. Some of us know our pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the pattern of stress response and can gauge summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of the depth of the problem by the nature and environmental stresses are catastrophic severity of our own symptoms or changes events or disasters such as fire, in behaviour. These symptoms of stress earthquake, floods, etc. can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can Psychological Stress indicate a degree of stress which, if left These are stresses that we generate unr esolved, might have serious ourselves in our minds. These are personal implications. and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress. We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or Activity Read the following signs of stress : become depressed. These are not only 3.1 symptoms of stress, but they cause further Lack of concentration, Memory loss, Poor decision-making, Inconsistency, stress for us. Some of the important Irregular attendance and timekeeping, sources of psychological str ess are Low self-esteem, Poor long-ter m frustration, conflicts, internal and social planning, Frantic bursts of energy, pressures, etc. Extreme mood swings, Emotional Frustration results from the blocking outbursts, Worry, Anxiety, Fear, of needs and motives by something or Depression, Difficulties with sleep, Difficulties with eating, Misuse of someone that hinders us from achieving a drugs, Physical illness, e.g. stomach desired goal. There could be a number of upset, headache, backache, etc. causes of frustration such as social Tick those applicable to you and discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low then discuss in groups of two or three grades in school, etc. Conflicts may occur students in class. Can you reduce between two or more incompatible needs some of them? Discuss how? Consult or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or your teacher. psychology. You may want to continue studies or take up a job. There may be a conflict of values when you are pressurised Types of Stress to take any action that may be against the values held by you. Internal pressures The three major types of stress, viz. stem from beliefs based upon expectations physical and environmental, psychological, from inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I must and social are listed in Figure 3.2. It is do everything perfectly’. Such expectations important to understand that all these can only lead to disappointment. Many of types of stress are interrelated. us drive ourselves ruthlessly towards achieving unrealistically high standards in Physical and Environmental Stress achieving our goals. Social pressures may Physical stresses are demands that change be brought about from people who make the state of our body. We feel strained excessive demands on us. This can cause when we overexert ourselves physically, even greater pressure when we have to lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or work with them. Also, there are people with fail to get enough sleep. Environmental whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a stresses are aspects of our surroundings personality clash’ of sorts. 55 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 Social Stress injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that These are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people. affect our lives. Social events like death or illness in the Life Events family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbours are some examples of social Changes, both big and small, sudden and stresses. These social stresses vary widely gradual affect our life from the moment we from person to person. Attending parties are born. We learn to cope with small, may be stressful for a person who likes to everyday changes but major life events can spend quiet evenings at home while an be stressful, because they disturb our outgoing person may find staying at home routine and cause upheaval. If several of in the evenings stressful. these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted Sources of Stress (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) A wide range of events and conditions can occur within a short period of time, we generate stress. Among the most important find it difficult to cope with them and of these are major stressful life events, will be more prone to the symptoms of such as death of a loved one or personal stress. Box A Measure of Stressful Life Events 3.1 Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful life events based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale has been developed for the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-rating questionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes, which a person may have experienced. Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their severity. For example, the death of one’s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure in examination 43, appearing for examination or interview 43, change in sleeping habits 33, as the mean stress score. Both positive and negative events are taken, believing that both kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent’s stress score is the weighted sum of all the items/life change events in the past one year checked by her/him. Some sample items of the measure are : Life Events Mean Stress Score Death of a close family member 66 Unexpected accident or trauma 53 Illness of a family member 52 Break-up with friend 47 Appearing for examinations 43 Change in eating habits 27 The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year without producing overt physical or mental illness is approximately two. However, the correlations between life events and susceptibility to any particular illness is low, indicating a weak association between life events and stress. It has been argued as to whether life events have caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused the life events and illness. The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support must be studied in evaluating the relationship between stressful life events and the subsequent illness episode. 56 Psychology 2024-25 Hassles EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL These are the personal stresses we endure FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, What are the effects of stress? Many of the commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, ef fects are physiological in nature, electricity and water shortage, traffic however, other changes also occur snarls, and so on. Attending to various inside stressed individuals. Ther e emergencies are daily hassles experienced are four major ef fects of str ess by a housewife. There are some jobs in associated with the stressed state, viz. which daily hassles are very frequent. emotional, physiological, cognitive, and These daily hassles may sometimes have behavioural. devastating consequences for the Emotional Effects : Those who suffer from individual who is often the one coping stress are far more likely to experience alone with them as others may not even be mood swings, and show erratic behaviour aware of them as outsiders. The more that may alienate them from family and stress people report as a result of daily friends. In some cases this can start a hassles, the poorer is their psychological vicious circle of decreasing confidence, well-being. leading to mor e serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of Traumatic Events anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension These include being involved in a variety and mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the of extreme events such as a fire, train or phenomenon of ‘Examination Anxiety’. r oad accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc. The effects of these events Physiological Effects : When the human may occur after some lapse of time and body is placed under physical or sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, psychological stress, it increases the flashbacks, dreams and intrusive production of certain hormones, such as thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones strain relationships. Professional help will produce marked changes in heart rate, be needed to cope with them especially if blood pressure levels, metabolism and they persist for many months after the physical activity. Although, this physical event is over. reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely Activity Identify the stressful events, which you damaging to the body in the long-term 3.2 and two of your classmates have effects. Examples of physiological effects experienced in the past one year. List ar e release of epinephrine and nor - the stressful events and rank them epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive from 1 to 5 that have had negative system, expansion of air passages in the impact in your day-to-day functioning. lungs, incr eased heart rate, and Then select those that are common to constriction of blood vessels. all three of you. Find out how much ability, skill, and family support your Cognitive Effects : If pressures due to friends and you have in order to deal stress continue, one may suffer from with each of these stresses. mental overload. This suffering from high Discuss these results with your level of stress can rapidly cause individuals teacher. to lose their ability to make sound 57 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, Stress and Health in career, or at workplace may lead to You must have often observed that many arguments, failure, financial loss or even of your friends (may be including yourself loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are as well!) fall sick during the examination poor concentration, and reduced short- time. They suffer from stomach upsets, term memory capacity. body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and fever Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our etc. You must have also noticed that people behaviour in the for m of eating less who are unhappy in their personal lives fall nutritional food, increasing intake of sick more often than those who are happy stimulants such as caffeine, excessive and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and divert an individual’s attention from caring other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. for herself or himself. When stress is Tranquillisers can be addictive and have prolonged, it affects physical health and side effects such as loss of concentration, impairs psychological functioning. People poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of experience exhaustion and attitudinal the typical behavioural effects of stress problems when the stress due to demands seen are disrupted sleep patter ns, from the environment and constraints are increased absenteeism, and reduced work too high and little support is available from performance. family and friends. The physical Box Examination Anxiety 3.2 Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension or uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experience feelings of anxiety around examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can be motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one’s performance. Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student. However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some students that they are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they have shown in less stressful classroom situations. Examination stress has been characterised as “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress” and produces debilitating behavioural, cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor. High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration, and performance. Examination stress can cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Persons who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening; in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and emotionally aroused. Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attention and interfere with concentration during examinations. High test anxious students respond to examination stress with intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves, feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and loss of status and esteem that impair their performance. Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plunges inward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily available to her/him, or experiences attentional blocks. While preparing for examinations, one must spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one’s strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condense notes, space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day concentrate on staying calm. 58 Psychology 2024-25 exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic 1. Alarm reaction stage : The presence fatigue, weakness and low energy. The of a noxious stimulus or stressor mental exhaustion appears in the form of leads to activation of the adrenal- irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness pituitary-cortex system. This triggers and hopelessness. This state of physical, the release of hormones producing the emotional and psychological exhaustion is stress response. Now the individual is known as burnout. ready for fight or flight. There is also convincing evidence to 2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged, show that stress can produce changes in the resistance stage begins. The para- the immune system and increase the sympathetic nervous system calls for chances of someone becoming ill. Stress mor e cautious use of the body’s has been implicated in the development of resources. The organism makes efforts cardiovascular disorders, high blood to cope with the threat, as through pr essure, as well as psychosomatic confrontation. disor ders including ulcers, asthma, 3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure allergies and headaches. to the same stressor or additional Researchers estimate that stress plays stressors drains the body of its an important role in fifty to seventy per resources and leads to the third stage cent of all physical illnesses. Studies also of exhaustion. The physiological reveal that sixty per cent of medical visits systems involved in alarm reaction and are primarily for stress-related symptoms. resistance become inef fective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases General Adaptation Syndrome such as high blood pressure becomes What happens to the body when stress is more likely. prolonged? Selye studied this issue by Selye’s model has been criticised for subjecting animals to a variety of stressors assigning a very limited r ole to such as high temperature, X-rays and psychological factors in stress. Researchers insulin injections, in the laboratory over a have reported that the psychological long period of time. He also observed appraisal of events is important for the patients with various injuries and illnesses deter mination of stress. How people in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern r espond to stress is substantially of bodily response in all of them. He called influenced by their per ceptions, this patter n the General Adaptation personalities and biological constitutions. Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, Stress and the Immune System resistance, and exhaustion (see Fig.3.3). Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune Fig.3.3 : The General Adaptation Syndrome system identify and destroy foreign bodies 59 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to Psychological stress is accompanied by the production of antibodies. There are negative emotions and associated several kinds of white blood cells or behaviours, including depression, hostility, leucocytes within the immune system, anger and aggression. Negative emotion including T cells, B cells and natural killer states are of particular concern to the cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper study of effects of stress on health. The cells increase immunological activity. It is incidence of psychological disorders, such these T-helper cells that are attacked by as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus increases with the build up of long-term (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno stress. Worries can reach such a level that Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells they surface as a frightening, painful produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are physical sensation, which can be mistaken involved in the fight against both viruses for a heart attack. People under prolonged and tumours. stress are more prone to irrational fears, Stress can affect natural killer cell mood swings and phobias, and may cytotoxicity, which is of major importance experience fits of depression, anger and in the defence against various infections irritability. These negative emotions appear and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer to be related to the function of the immune cell cytotoxicity have been found in people system. Our ability to interpret our world who are highly stressed, including and to invest that interpretation with students facing important examinations, personal meaning and emotion have a bereaved persons, and those who are powerful and direct effect on the body. severely depressed. Studies reveal that Negative moods have been associated with immune functioning is better in individuals poorer health outcomes. Feelings of receiving social support. Also, changes in hopelessness are related to worsening of the immune system will have more effect disease, increased risk of injury and death on health among those whose immune due to various causes. systems are already weakened. Figure 3.4 depicts this sequence comprising negative Lifestyle emotions, release of stress hormones Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or which lead to weakening of the immune health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the system, thereby affecting mental and overall pattern of decisions and behaviours physical health. that determine a person’s health and Fig.3.4 : Relation of Stress with Illness 60 Psychology 2024-25 quality of life. Stressed individuals may be impair ed immune response and mor e likely to expose themselves to diminished activity of natural killer cells. pathogens, which are agents causing Individuals show consistent individual physical illness. People who are stressed differences in the coping strategies they have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and use to handle stressful situations. These are likely to engage in other health risking can include both overt and covert behaviours like smoking and alcohol activities. The three coping strategies given abuse. Such health impairing behaviours by Endler and Parker are: develop gradually and are accompanied by Task-oriented Strategy : This involves pleasant experiences temporarily. However, obtaining information about the stressful we tend to ignore their long-term damaging situation and about alternative courses of effects and underestimate the risk they action and their probable outcome; it also pose to our lives. involves deciding priorities and acting so Studies have revealed that health as to deal directly with the stressful promoting behaviour like balanced diet, situation. For example, schedule my time regular exercise, family support, etc. play better, or think about how I have solved an important role in good health. Adhering similar problems. to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can diet, regular exercise and continued involve efforts to maintain hope and to activity along with positive thinking control one’s emotions; it can also involve enhances health and longevity. The venting feelings of anger and frustration, modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, or deciding that nothing can be done to drinking and the so called fast-paced good change things. For example, tell myself life has led to violation of basic principles that it is not really happening to me, or of health in some of us, as to what we eat, worry about what I am going to do. think or do with our lives. Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This involves denying or minimising the COPING WITH STRESS seriousness of the situation; it also involves In recent years the conviction has grown conscious suppr ession of stressful that it is how we cope with stress and not thoughts and their replacement by self- the stress one experiences that influences our psychological well-being, social Respond to the following items on a Activity functioning and health. Coping is a 5-point scale ranging from 5 = always 3.3 dynamic situation-specific reaction to to 1 = never. stress. It is a set of concrete responses to I express emotions openly and stressful situations or events that are directly. I work towards my own personal intended to resolve the problem and reduce goals. stress. The way we cope with stress often I accept situations that cannot be depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based altered. on experience, e.g. when caught in a traffic I discuss my worries with friends. jam we feel angry, because we believe that I may not get everything just right. the traffic ‘should’ move faster. To manage Discuss your answers with your stress we often need to reassess the way classmates and teacher. The higher we think and learn coping strategies. the score, the better would be your ability to cope. People who cope poorly with stress have an 61 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 protective thoughts. Examples of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to Which of the following coping Activity behaviours are problem-focused? Why? 3.4 be with other people. Discussing your problem with a Lazarus and Folkman has friend. conceptualised coping as a dynamic Feeling sorry for failing in an process rather than an individual trait. examination. Coping refers to constantly changing Finding fault with classmates for cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, poor marks in tests. reduce or tolerate the internal or external Hiding examination results from parents. demands that are created by the stressful Blaming friends for bad habits. transaction. Coping serves to allow the Reading essential books for the individual to manage or alter a problem annual examination. and regulate the emotional response to Making efforts to improve one’s that problem. According to them coping performance after a setback. responses can be divided into two types of Missing school when assignments responses, problem-focused and emotion- not completed. Discuss the answers with your focused. Problem-focused strategies attack classmates and teacher. the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. manage stress. Some of these techniques They increase the person’s awareness, level are: of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act Relaxation Techniques : It is an active to reduce the threat value of the event. For skill that reduces symptoms of stress and example “I made a plan of action and decreases the incidence of illnesses such followed it”. Emotion-focused strategies call as high blood pressure and heart disease. for psychological changes designed Usually relaxation starts from the lower primarily to limit the degree of emotional part of the body and progresses up to the disruption caused by an event, with facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is minimal effort to alter the event itself. For used along with muscle relaxation to calm example “I did some things to let it out of the mind and relax the body. my system”. While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary Meditation Procedures : The yogic method when facing stressful situations, research of meditation consists of a sequence of suggests that people generally tend to use lear ned techniques for refocusing of the former more often than the latter. attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. It involves such a Stress Management Techniques thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of any outside Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated to stimulation and reaches a different state play a significant role in physical illness of consciousness. and disease. Hypertension, heart disease, ulcers, diabetes and even cancer are linked Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is and reduce the physiological aspects of on the increase. Therefore, schools, other stress by providing feedback about current institutions, offices and communities are physiological activity and is often concerned about knowing techniques to accompanied by relaxation training. 62 Psychology 2024-25 Biofeedback training involves three stages : times a week for 30 minutes at a time. developing an awareness of the particular Each session must have a war m-up, physiological response, e.g. heart rate, exercise and cool down phases. lear ning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions; PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND and transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life. WELL-BEING Creative Visualisation : It is an effective It is unlikely that we will go through life technique for dealing with stress. Creative without some experience of personal crises visualisation is a subjective experience that causing acute pressure for a while. Many uses imagery and imagination. Before people sail through and rebuild their lives visualising one must set oneself a realistic very positively. They are likely to have goal, as it helps build confidence. It is constructive attitudes and also have lots of easier to visualise if one’s mind is quiet, emotional and social support of various body relaxed and eyes are closed. This kinds available to them. When we find reduces the risk of interference from ways of managing these pressures and can unbidden thoughts and provides the use the energy to create something positive creative energy needed for turning an out of the situation, then we will have imagined scene into reality. learned to survive healthily and this will leave us more stress fit for future crises. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : It is like being immunised against the These techniques aim to inoculate people against stress. Stress inoculation training dangers of unhealthy stress. is one ef fective method developed by Stress Resistant Personality : Recent Meichenbaum. The essence of this studies by Kobasa have shown that people appr oach is to replace negative and with high levels of stress but low levels of irrational thoughts with positive and illness share three characteristics, which rational ones. There are three main phases are referred to as the personality traits of in this : assessment, stress reduction hardiness. It consists of ‘the three Cs’, i.e. techniques, and application and follow- commitment, control, and challenge. through. Assessment involves discussing Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the nature of the problem and seeing it the world, and how they interact. It takes from the viewpoint of the person/client. shape as a sense of personal commitment Stress reduction involves learning the to what you are doing, a sense of control techniques of reducing stress such as over your life, and a feeling of challenge. relaxation and self-instruction. Stress resistant personalities have control Exercise : Exercise can provide an active which is a sense of purpose and direction outlet for the physiological ar ousal in life; commitment to work, family, experienced in response to stress. Regular hobbies and social life; and challenge, that exercise improves the efficiency of the is, they see changes in life as normal and heart, enhances the function of the lungs, positive rather than as a threat. maintains good circulation, lowers blood Everyone does not have these pressure, reduces fat in the blood and characteristics, many of us have to relearn improves the body’s immune system. specific life skills in areas such as rational Swimming, walking, running, cycling, thinking, and assertiveness to equip skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. One ourselves better to cope with the demands must practice these exercises at least four of everyday life, etc. 63 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 Life Skills images from the past, which affect our perception of the present and the future. Life skills are abilities for adaptive and Some of the principles of rational thinking positive behaviour that enable individuals are: challenging your distorted thinking and to deal effectively with the demands and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially challenges of everyday life. Our ability to intrusive negative anxiety-provoking cope depends on how well we are prepared thoughts, and making positive statements. to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in our Improving Relationships : The key to a lives. These life skills can be learned and sound lasting relationship is communi- even improved upon. Assertiveness, time cation. This consists of three essential management, rational thinking, improving skills: listening to what the other person relationships, self-care, and overcoming is saying, expressing how you feel and unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, what you think, and accepting the other procrastination, etc. are some life skills person’s opinions and feelings, even if they that will help to meet the challenges of life. are dif ferent from your own. It also Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy behaviour or skill that helps to and sulking behaviour. communicate, clearly and confidently, our Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fit feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is and relaxed, we are better prepared the ability to say no to a request, to state physically and emotionally to tackle the an opinion without being self-conscious, or stresses of everyday life. Our breathing to express emotions such as love, anger, patterns reflect our state of mind and etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feel emotions. When we are stressed or confident, and have high self-esteem and anxious, we tend towards rapid and a solid sense of your own identity. shallow breathing from high in the chest, Time Management : The way you spend with frequent sighs. The most relaxed your time determines the quality of your breathing is slow, stomach-centred life. Learning how to plan time and breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome delegate can help to relieve the pressure. like muscle between the chest and the The major way to reduce time stress is to abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses change one’s perception of time. The like noise, pollution, space, light, colour, central principle of time management is to etc. can all exert an influence on our mood. spend your time doing the things that you These have a noticeable effect on our value, or that help you to achieve your ability to cope with stress, and well-being. goals. It depends on being realistic about Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpful what you know and that you must do it habits such as perfectionism, avoidance, within a certain time period, knowing what procrastination, etc. are strategies that you want to do, and organising your life to help to cope in the short-term but which achieve a balance between the two. make one more vulnerable to stress. Rational Thinking : Many stress-related Perfectionists are persons who have to get problems occur as a result of distorted everything just right. They have difficulty thinking. The way you think and the way in varying standards according to factors you feel are closely connected. When we such as time available, consequences of are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective not being able to stop work, and the effort bias to attend to negative thoughts and needed. They are more likely to feel tense 64 Psychology 2024-25 and find it difficult to relax, are critical of Diet : A balanced diet can lift one’s mood, self and others, and may become inclined give more energy, feed muscles, improve to avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put the circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept immune system and make one feel better or face it. Procrastination means putting off to cope with stresses of life. The key to what we know we need to do. We all are healthy living is to eat three main meals guilty of saying “I will do it later”. People a day, and eat a varied well-balanced diet. who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding How much nutrition one needs depends on confronting their fears of failure or rejection. one’s activity level, genetic make-up, Various factors have been identified climate, and health history. What people which facilitate the development of eat, and how much do they weigh involve positive health. Health is a state of behavioural processes. Some people are complete physical, mental, social and able to maintain a healthy diet and weight spiritual well-being, and not merely the while others become obese. When we are absence of disease or infirmity. Positive stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods’ which are health comprises the following constructs: high in fats, salt and sugar. “a healthy body; high quality of personal relationships; a sense of purpose in life; Exercise : A large number of studies self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; and confirm a consistently positive relationship resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. between physical fitness and health. Also, Box 3.3 presents the relationship between of all the measures an individual can take resilience and health. Specifically, factors to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle that act as stress buffers and facilitate change with the widest popular approval. positive health are diet, exercise, positive Regular exercise plays an important role in attitude, positive thinking, and social managing weight and stress, and is shown support. to have a positive ef fect on reducing Resilience and Health Box 3.3 In recent years, there has been a lot of research in understanding resilience in children and adolescents. Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described as the capacity to ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and adversity. Resilience has been conceptualised as reflecting feelings of self-worth and self-confidence, autonomy and self-reliance, finding positive role models, seeking a confidant, cognitive skills such as problem solving, creativity, resourcefulness, and flexibility and a belief that one’s life has purpose and meaning. Resilient individuals are able to overcome the effects of trauma, stress and adversity and learn to live psychologically healthy and meaningful lives. Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three resources: I HAVE (social and interpersonal strengths), i.e. ‘people around me I trust and who love me no matter what’, I AM (inner strengths), i.e. ‘respectful of myself and others’, and I CAN ( interpersonal and problem solving skills), i.e. ‘find ways to solve problems I face’. For a child to be resilient, s/he needs to have more than one of these strengths. For example, children may have plenty of self-esteem (I am), but may lack anyone whom they can turn to for support (I have), and do not have the capacity to solve problems (I can), will not be resilient. Outcomes of longitudinal studies of children provide evidence that in spite of extreme vulnerabilities related to poverty and other social disadvantages, many individuals develop into capable and caring adults. 65 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25 tension, anxiety and depression. Physical Social Support : Social support is defined exercises that are essential for good health as the existence and availability of people are stretching exercises such as yogic on whom we can rely upon, people who let asanas and aerobic exercises such as us know that they care about, value, and jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas love us. Someone who believes that s/he stretching exercises have a calming effect, belongs to a social network of aerobic exercises increase the arousal level communication and mutual obligation of the body. The health benefits of exercise experiences social support. Perceived work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest support, i.e. the quality of social support that fitness per mits individuals to is positively related to health and well- maintain general mental and physical well- being, whereas social network, i.e. the being even in the face of negative life quantity of social support is unrelated to events. well-being, because it is very time- consuming and demanding to maintain a Positive Attitude : Positive health and large social network. Studies have revealed well-being can be realised by having a that women exposed to life event stresses, positive attitude. Some of the factors who had a close friend, were less likely to leading to a positive attitude are: having a be depressed and had lesser medical fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense complications during pregnancy. Social of purpose in life and responsibility; support can help to provide protection acceptance and tolerance for different against stress. People with high levels of viewpoints of others; and taking credit for social support from family and friends may success and accepting blame for failure. experience less stress when they confront Finally, being open to new ideas and a stressful experience, and they may cope having a sense of humour with the ability with it more successfully. to laugh at oneself help us to remain Social support may be in the form of centred, and see things in a proper tangible support or assistance involving perspective. material aid, such as money, goods, Positive Thinking : The power of positive services, etc. For example, a child gives thinking has been increasingly recognised notes to her/his friend, since s/he was in reducing and coping with stress. absent from school due to sickness. Family Optimism, which is the inclination to and friends also provide informational expect favourable life outcomes, has been support about stressful events. For linked to psychological and physical well- example, a student facing a stressful event being. People differ in the manner in which such as a difficult board examination, if they cope. For example, optimists tend to provided information by a friend who has assume that adversity can be handled faced a similar one, would not only be able successfully whereas pessimists anticipate to identify the exact procedures involved, disasters. Optimists use more problem- but also it would facilitate in determining focused coping strategies, and seek advice what resources and coping strategies could and help from others. Pessimists ignore the be useful to successfully pass the problem or source of stress, and use examination. During times of stress, one strategies such as giving up the goal with may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss which stress is interfering or denying that of self-esteem. Supportive friends and stress exists. family provide emotional support by 66 Psychology 2024-25 reassuring the individual that she/he is loved, valued, and cared for. Research has Identify a child in your neighbourhood Activity who had undergone some major stress 3.5 demonstrated that social support in life such as a serious accident or been effectively reduces psychological distress through a recent traumatic experience such as depression or anxiety, during like a robbery, fire, etc. Talk to the child times of stress. There is growing evidence and family. Can you identify some that social support is positively related to factors that have helped her/him to cope and overcome the trauma? Do you psychological well-being. Generally, social see any similar factors in your own life? support leads to mental health benefits for Discuss with your teacher. both the giver and the receiver. Key Terms Alarm reaction, Appraisal, Coping, Exhaustion, General adaptation syndrome, Hardiness, Homeostasis, Life skills, Optimism, Positive health, Psychoneuroimmunology, Resilience, Social support, Stress, Stressors. Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoing transactional process between the individual and the environment. There are three major types of stresses, physical and environmental, psychological and social. Sources of stress are life events, everyday hassles, traumatic events. The response to stress is emotional, physiological, cognitive and behavioural. Coping is a dynamic situation-specific individual reaction to stress. There are three main types of coping, task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping. Coping responses may be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping focuses to alter the environment and acts to reduce the threat value of the event. Emotion-focused coping are strategies for changing emotions and aim to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by the event. It is essential to have a healthy lifestyle for handling stress and effective coping. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self- care, and overcoming unhelpful habits are life skills that help us to meet life’s challenges. Positive health and well-being come through balanced diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive optimistic thinking, and social support. There is also a need for overall harmonious conditions in society. We must avoid taking unhealthy escape routes of smoking, alcohol, drugs and other harmful behaviours. Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life. 2. State the symptoms and sources of stress. 3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example. 4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress. 5. Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning. 6. Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges. 7. Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being. 8. How does stress affect the immune system? 67 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 2024-25  9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it. 10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives. 11. Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and (b) a negative effect. 12. We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain why? Project 1. Record the stresses in the lives of 5–10 teenagers. Are these different for girls and boys? Ideas Find out the ways by which they cope with them. 2. Discuss with your parents and grandparents the unique stressors they face in their lives and how they cope with them. Weblinks http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/stress.html http://www.teachhealth.com http://www.lifepositive.com/stress.html Pedagogical Hints 1. It is important to make students realise that stress is an integral part of life. They must, therefore, be encouraged to recognise the signs of stress in themselves and in others. 2. Students could brainstorm for possible ways of dealing with different types of stressors. 3. Drawing examples from students’ lives, they need to be made to understand the harmful effects of stress on physical and mental health. 4. Students should be encouraged to search for literature in newspapers, magazines, Internet, etc. suggesting ways of dealing with stress. This could be followed by discussion in the classroom. 68 Psychology 2024-25