Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices, and Simple Circuits PDF

Chapter Fourteen SEMICONDUCTOR d he ELECTRONICS: pu T is MATERIALS, DEVICES re R bl AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS E be C o N 14.1 INTRODUCTION tt © Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained ar...

Chapter Fourteen SEMICONDUCTOR d he ELECTRONICS: pu T is MATERIALS, DEVICES re R bl AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS E be C o N 14.1 INTRODUCTION tt © Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits. Before the discovery of transistor in 1948, such devices were mostly vacuum tubes (also called valves) like the vacuum diode which has two electrodes, viz., anode (often called plate) and cathode; triode which has three electrodes – cathode, plate and grid; tetrode and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electrodes). In a vacuum tube, the electrons are supplied by a heated cathode and the controlled flow of these electrons in vacuum is obtained by varying the voltage between its different electrodes. Vacuum is required in the inter-electrode space; otherwise the moving electrons may lose their energy on collision with the air molecules in their path. In these devices the electrons can flow only from the cathode to the anode (i.e., only in one direction). Therefore, such devices are generally referred to as valves. no These vacuum tube devices are bulky, consume high power, operate generally at high voltages (~100 V) and have limited life and low reliability. The seed of the development of modern solid-state semiconductor electronics goes back to 1930’s when it was realised that some solid- state semiconductors and their junctions offer the possibility of controlling the number and the direction of flow of charge carriers through them. Simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can change the number of mobile charges in a semiconductor. Note that the supply  Physics and flow of charge carriers in the semiconductor devices are within the solid itself, while in the earlier vacuum tubes/valves, the mobile electrons were obtained from a heated cathode and they were made to flow in an evacuated space or vacuum. No external heating or large evacuated space is required by the semiconductor devices. They are small in size, consume low power, operate at low voltages and have long life and high reliability. d Even the Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) used in television and computer monitors which work on the principle of vacuum tubes are being replaced by Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors with supporting solid state he electronics. Much before the full implications of the semiconductor devices was formally understood, a naturally occurring crystal of galena (Lead sulphide, PbS) with a metal point contact attached to it was used as detector of radio waves. pu T is In the following sections, we will introduce the basic concepts of semiconductor physics and discuss some semiconductor devices like re R junction diodes (a 2-electrode device) and bipolar junction transistor (a bl 3-electrode device). A few circuits illustrating their applications will also be described. E 14.2 CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, C ONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS be C On the basis of conductivity On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity ( σ ) or resistivity o N ( ρ = 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as: (i) Metals: They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity). ρ ~ 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m σ ~ 102 – 108 S m–1 tt © (ii) Semiconductors: They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators. ρ ~ 10–5 – 106 Ω m σ ~ 105 – 10–6 S m–1 (iii)Insulators: They have high resistivity (or low conductivity). ρ ~ 10 11 – 1019 Ω m σ ~ 10–11 – 10–19 S m–1 The values of ρ and σ given above are indicative of magnitude and could well go outside the ranges as well. Relative values of the resistivity are not the only criteria for distinguishing metals, insulators and semiconductors from each other. There are some other differences, which will become clear as we go along in this chapter. Our interest in this chapter is in the study of semiconductors which no could be: (i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge (ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are: Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc. Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc. Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc. Most of the currently available semiconductor devices are based on 468 elemental semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits semiconductors. However, after 1990, a few semiconductor devices using organic semiconductors and semiconducting polymers have been developed signalling the birth of a futuristic technology of polymer- electronics and molecular-electronics. In this chapter, we will restrict ourselves to the study of inorganic semiconductors, particularly elemental semiconductors Si and Ge. The general concepts introduced here for discussing the elemental semiconductors, by-and-large, apply d to most of the compound semiconductors as well. he On the basis of energy bands According to the Bohr atomic model, in an isolated atom the energy of any of its electrons is decided by the orbit in which it revolves. But when the atoms come together to form a solid they are close to each other. So pu T the outer orbits of electrons from neighbouring atoms would come very is close or could even overlap. This would make the nature of electron motion in a solid very different from that in an isolated atom. re R Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two bl electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding charges. Because of this, each electron will have a different energy level. These different energy levels with continuous energy variation form what are called E energy bands. The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the valence band. The energy band above the be C valence band is called the conduction band. With no external energy, all the valence electrons will reside in the valence band. If the lowest level in the conduction band happens to be lower than the highest level of the valence band, the electrons from the valence band can easily move into o N the conduction band. Normally the conduction band is empty. But when it overlaps on the valence band electrons can move freely into it. This is the case with metallic conductors. If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence tt © band, electrons in the valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the conduction band. This makes the material an insulator. But some of the electrons from the valence band may gain external energy to cross the gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Then these electrons will move into the conduction band. At the same time they will create vacant energy levels in the valence band where other valence electrons can move. Thus the process creates the possibility of conduction due to electrons in conduction band as well as due to vacancies in the valence band. Let us consider what happens in the case of Si or Ge crystal containing N atoms. For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence, the total number of outer electrons in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of electrons in the no outer orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons). So, for the 4N valence electrons there are 8N available energy states. These 8N discrete energy levels can either form a continuous band or they may be grouped in different bands depending upon the distance between the atoms in the crystal (see box on Band Theory of Solids). At the distance between the atoms in the crystal lattices of Si and Ge, the energy band of these 8N states is split apart into two which are separated by an energy gap Eg (Fig. 14.1). The lower band which is 469  Physics completely occupied by the 4N valence electrons at temperature of absolute zero is the valence band. The other band consisting of 4N energy states, called the conduction band, is completely empty at absolute zero. B AND THEORY OF SOLIDS d Consider that the Si or Ge crystal contains N atoms. Electrons of each atom will have discrete energies in he different orbits. The electron energy will be same if all the atoms are isolated, i.e., separated from each other by a large distance. However, pu T in a crystal, the atoms are close to is each other (2 to 3 Å) and therefore the electrons interact with each re R other and also with the bl neighbouring atomic cores. The overlap (or interaction) will be more E felt by the electrons in the outermost orbit while the inner orbit or core electron energies may be C remain unaffected. Therefore, for understanding electron energies in Si or Ge crystal, we need to consider the changes in the energies of the electrons in the outermost orbit only. For Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). The number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence, o N the total number of outer electrons in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of outer electrons in the orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons). So, out of the 4N electrons, 2N electrons are in the 2N s-states (orbital quantum number l = 0) and 2N electrons are in the available 6N p-states. Obviously, some p-electron states are empty as shown in the extreme right of tt © Figure. This is the case of well separated or isolated atoms [region A of Figure]. Suppose these atoms start coming nearer to each other to form a solid. The energies of these electrons in the outermost orbit may change (both increase and decrease) due to the interaction between the electrons of different atoms. The 6N states for l = 1, which originally had identical energies in the isolated atoms, spread out and form an energy band [region B in Figure]. Similarly, the 2N states for l = 0, having identical energies in the isolated atoms, split into a second band (carefully see the region B of Figure) separated from the first one by an energy gap. At still smaller spacing, however, there comes a region in which the bands merge with each other. The lowest energy state that is a split from the upper atomic level appears to drop below the upper state that has come from the lower atomic level. In this region (region C in Figure), no energy gap exists where the upper and lower energy states get mixed. Finally, if the distance between the atoms further decreases, the energy bands again split apart and are separated by an energy gap Eg (region D in Figure). The total number no of available energy states 8N has been re-apportioned between the two bands (4N states each in the lower and upper energy bands). Here the significant point is that there are exactly as many states in the lower band (4N) as there are available valence electrons from the atoms (4N ). Therefore, this band ( called the valence band ) is completely filled while the upper band is completely empty. The upper band is called the conduction band. 470  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as E C and highest energy level in the valence band is shown as EV. Above E C and below EV there are a large number of closely spaced energy levels, as shown in Fig. 14.1. d The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap he Eg ). It may be large, small, or zero, depending upon the material. These different situations, are depicted in Fig. 14.2 and discussed below: pu T Case I: This refers to a situation, as is shown in Fig. 14.2(a). One can have a metal either when the conduction band re R is partially filled and the balanced band FIGURE 14.1 The energy band positions in a bl is partially empty or when the conduction semiconductor at 0 K. The upper band, called the and valance bands overlap. When there conduction band, consists of infinitely large number E of closely spaced energy states. The lower band, is overlap electrons from valence band can called the valence band, consists of closely spaced easily move into the conduction band. completely filled energy states. This situation makes a large number of be C electrons available for electrical conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level making conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials o N is low or the conductivity is high. tt © no FIGURE 14.2 Difference between energy bands of (a) metals, (b) insulators and (c) semiconductors. 471  Physics Case II: In this case, as shown in Fig. 14.2(b), a large band gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction band, and therefore no electrical conduction is possible. Note that the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal excitation. This is the case of insulators. Case III: This situation is shown in Fig. 14.2(c). Here a finite but small d band gap (E g < 3 eV) exists. Because of the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire enough he energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators. In this section we have made a broad classification of metals, pu T is conductors and semiconductors. In the section which follows you will learn the conduction process in semiconductors. re R bl 14.3 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR We shall take the most common case of Ge and Si whose lattice structure E is shown in Fig. 14.3. These structures are called the diamond-like structures. Each atom is surrounded by four nearest neighbours. We know that Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In its crystalline be C structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take share of one electron from each such neighbour. These shared electron o N pairs are referred to as forming a covalent bond or simply a valence bond. The two shared electrons can be assumed to shuttle back-and- forth between the associated atoms holding them together strongly. Figure 14.4 schematically shows the 2-dimensional representation of Si tt © or Ge structure shown in Fig. 14.3 which overemphasises the covalent bond. It shows an idealised picture in which no bonds are broken (all bonds are intact). Such a situation arises at low temperatures. As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these electrons and some of these electrons may break–away (becoming free electrons contributing to conduction). The thermal energy effectively ionises only a few atoms in the crystalline lattice and creates a vacancy in the bond as shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The neighbourhood, from which the free electron (with charge –q ) has come out leaves a vacancy with an effective charge (+q ). This vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is no called a hole. The hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive charge. FIGURE 14.3 Three-dimensional dia- In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free mond-like crystal structure for Carbon, electrons, ne is equal to the number of holes, n h. That is Silicon or Germanium with n e = n h = ni (14.1) respective lattice spacing a equal where n i is called intrinsic carrier concentration. to 3.56, 5.43 and 5.66 Å. Semiconductors posses the unique property in 472 which, apart from electrons, the holes also move.  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Suppose there is a hole at site 1 as shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The movement of holes can be visualised as shown in Fig. 14.5(b). An electron from the covalent bond at site 2 may jump to the vacant site 1 (hole). Thus, after such a jump, the hole is at site 2 and the site 1 has now an d electron. Therefore, apparently, the hole has moved from site 1 to site 2. Note that the electron originally set free [Fig. 14.5(a)] is not involved he in this process of hole motion. The free electron moves completely independently as conduction electron and gives rise to an electron current, I e under an applied electric field. Remember that pu T the motion of hole is only a convenient way of is FIGURE 14.4 Schematic two-dimensional describing the actual motion of bound electrons, representation of Si or Ge structure showing whenever there is an empty bond anywhere in covalent bonds at low temperature re R the crystal. Under the action of an electric field, (all bonds intact). +4 symbol bl these holes move towards negative potential indicates inner cores of Si or Ge. giving the hole current, Ih. The total current, I is E thus the sum of the electron current I e and the hole current Ih: I = Ie + Ih (14.2) be C It may be noted that apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of o N generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers. The recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole. tt © no (a) (b) FIGURE 14.5 (a) Schematic model of generation of hole at site 1 and conduction electron due to thermal energy at moderate temperatures. (b) Simplified representation of possible thermal motion of a hole. The electron from the lower left hand covalent bond (site 2) goes to the earlier hole site1, leaving a hole at its site indicating an apparent movement of the hole from site 1 to site 2. 473  Physics An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K as shown in Fig. 14.6(a). It is the thermal energy at higher temperatures (T > 0K), which excites some electrons from the valence band to the d conduction band. These thermally excited electrons at he T > 0 K, partially occupy the conduction band. Therefore, the energy-band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor will be FIGURE 14.6 (a) An intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0 K as shown in Fig. 14.6(b). Here, pu T is behaves like insulator. (b) At T > 0 K, four ther mally generated some electrons are shown in electron-hole pairs. The filled circles ( ) represent electrons the conduction band. These and empty fields ( ) represent holes. have come from the valence re R band leaving equal number of bl holes there. E Example 14.1 C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure. Why is C insulator while Si and Ge intrinsic semiconductors? EXAMPLE 14.1 be C Solution The 4 bonding electrons of C, Si or Ge lie, respectively, in the second, third and fourth orbit. Hence, energy required to take out an electron from these atoms (i.e., ionisation energy Eg ) will be least for Ge, followed by Si and highest for C. Hence, number of free o N electrons for conduction in Ge and Si are significant but negligibly small for C. tt © 14.4 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends on its temperature, but at room temperature its conductivity is very low. As such, no important electronic devices can be developed using these semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving their conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities. When a small amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold. Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or impurity semiconductors. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a material is also called a doped semiconductor. no The dopant has to be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very few of the original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain this is that the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same. There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge: (i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous 474 (P), etc.  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits (ii) Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc. We shall now discuss how the doping changes the number of charge carriers (and hence the conductivity) of semiconductors. Si or Ge belongs to the fourth group in the d Periodic table and, therefore, we choose the dopant element from nearby fifth or third group, expecting and taking care that the he size of the dopant atom is nearly the same as that of Si or Ge. Interestingly, the pentavalent and trivalent dopants in Si or Ge give two entirely different types of semiconductors as pu T is discussed below. (i) n-type semiconductor re R bl Suppose we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element as shown in Fig. 14.7. When an atom of +5 valency element occupies the position E of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four of its electrons bond with the four silicon be C neighbours while the fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom. This is because the four electrons participating in o N bonding are seen as part of the effective core FIGURE 14.7 (a) Pentavalent donor atom (As, Sb, of the atom by the fifth electron. As a result P, etc.) doped for tetravalent Si or Ge giving n- the ionisation energy required to set this type semiconductor, and (b) Commonly used schematic representation of n-type material electron free is very small and even at room which shows only the fixed cores of the temperature it will be free to move in the tt © substituent donors with one additional effective lattice of the semiconductor. For example, the positive charge and its associated extra electron. energy required is ~ 0.01 eV for germanium, and 0.05 eV for silicon, to separate this electron from its atom. This is in contrast to the energy required to jump the forbidden band (about 0.72 eV for germanium and about 1.1 eV for silicon) at room temperature in the intrinsic semiconductor. Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is known as donor impurity. The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms depends strongly upon the doping level and is independent of any increase in ambient temperature. On the other hand, the number of free electrons (with an equal number of holes) generated by Si atoms, increases weakly with temperature. no In a doped semiconductor the total number of conduction electrons ne is due to the electrons contributed by donors and those generated intrinsically, while the total number of holes n h is only due to the holes from the intrinsic source. But the rate of recombination of holes would increase due to the increase in the number of electrons. As a result, the number of holes would get reduced further. Thus, with proper level of doping the number of conduction electrons can be made much larger than the number of holes. Hence in an extrinsic 475  Physics semiconductor doped with pentavalent impurity, electrons become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers. These semiconductors are, therefore, known as n-type semiconductors. For n-type semiconductors, we have, ne >> nh (14.3) (ii) p-type semiconductor d This is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like Al, B, In, etc. The dopant has one valence electron less than he Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form covalent bonds with neighbouring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to offer to the fourth Si atom. So the bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole as shown pu T in Fig. 14.8. Since the neighbouring Si atom in the lattice wants is an electron in place of a hole, an electron in the outer orbit of an atom in the neighbourhood may jump to fill this vacancy, re R leaving a vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus the hole is bl available for conduction. Note that the trivalent foreign atom becomes effectively negatively charged when it shares fourth E electron with neighbouring Si atom. Therefore, the dopant atom of p-type material can be treated as core of one negative charge along with its associated hole as shown in Fig. 14.8(b). It is be C obvious that one acceptor atom gives one hole. These holes are in addition to the intrinsically generated holes while the source of conduction electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, for o N such a material, the holes are the majority carriers and electrons FIGURE 14.8 (a) Trivalent are minority carriers. Therefore, extrinsic semiconductors doped acceptor atom (In, Al, B etc.) with trivalent impurity are called p-type semiconductors. For doped in tetravalent Si or Ge p-type semiconductors, the recombination process will reduce lattice giving p-type semicon- tt © ductor. (b) Commonly used the number (n i)of intrinsically generated electrons to ne. We schematic representation of have, for p-type semiconductors p-type material which shows nh >> ne (14.4) only the fixed core of the Note that the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality substituent acceptor with as the charge of additional charge carriers is just equal and one effective additional negative charge and its opposite to that of the ionised cores in the lattice. associated hole. In extrinsic semiconductors, because of the abundance of majority current carriers, the minority carriers produced thermally have more chance of meeting majority carriers and thus getting destroyed. Hence, the dopant, by adding a large number of current carriers of one type, which become the majority carriers, indirectly helps to reduce the intrinsic concentration of minority carriers. The semiconductor’s energy band structure is affected by doping. In no the case of extrinsic semiconductors, additional energy states due to donor impurities (ED ) and acceptor impurities (EA ) also exist. In the energy band diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom EC of the conduction band and electrons from this level move into the conduction band with very small supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionised but very few (~10–12) atoms of Si get ionised. So the conduction band will have most electrons 476 coming from the donor impurities, as shown in Fig. 14.9(a). Similarly,  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits for p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the valence band as shown in Fig. 14.9(b). With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor negatively. (Alternately, we can also say that with very small supply of energy the hole from level EA sinks down into the valence band. Electrons rise up and holes fall down when they gain d external energy.) At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionised leaving holes in the valence band. Thus at room temperature the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to impurity in he the extrinsic semiconductor. The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by ne nh = n i2 (14.5) pu T Though the above description is grossly approximate and is hypothetical, it helps in understanding the difference between metals, insulators and semiconductors (extrinsic and intrinsic) in a simple re R manner. The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge depends upon bl the energy gap between their conduction and valence bands. For C (diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4 eV, 1.1 eV and 0.7 eV, E respectively. Sn also is a group IV element but it is a metal because the energy gap in its case is 0 eV. be C o N tt © FIGURE 14.9 Energy bands of (a) n-type semiconductor at T > 0K, (b) p-type semiconductor at T > 0K. Example 14.2 Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m–3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of pentavalent As. Calculate the no number of electrons and holes. Given that ni =1.5 × 10 16 m–3. Solution Note that thermally generated electrons (ni ~10 16 m–3 ) are EXAMPLE 14.2 negligibly small as compared to those produced by doping. Therefore, ne ≈ ND. 2 Since nenh = ni , The number of holes nh = (2.25 × 1032)/(5 ×1022) ~ 4.5 × 109 m–3 477  Physics 14.5 p-n JUNCTION A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like diodes, transistor, etc. A clear understanding of the junction behaviour is important to analyse the working of other semiconductor devices. We will now try to understand how a junction is formed and how the d junction behaves under the influence of external applied voltage (also called bias). http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/pnjun.html he 14.5.1 p-n junction formation Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity of pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several processes by which a pu T is semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and Formation and working of p-n junction diode n-region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region. re R Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: bl diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more E compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and due to the be C concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current across the junction. o N When an electron diffuses from n → p, it leaves behind an ionised donor on n-side. This ionised donor (positive charge) is immobile as it is bonded to the surrounding atoms. As the electrons continue to diffuse from n → p, a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region) on tt © n-side of the junction is developed. Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p → n due to the concentration gradient, it leaves behind an ionised acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge (or negative space-charge region) on the p-side of the junction is developed. This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region as the electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region of its free charges (Fig. 14.10). The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometre. Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and no negative space charge region on p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from positive charge towards negative charge develops. Due to this field, an electron on p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n- side of the junction moves to p-side. The motion of charge FIGURE 14.10 p-n junction carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Thus a formation process. drift current, which is opposite in direction to the diffusion 478 current (Fig. 14.10) starts.  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Thus a p-n junction is formed. In a p-n junction under equilibrium there d is no net current. The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region causes a difference of potential across he the junction of the two regions. The polarity of this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition of equilibrium exists. Figure 14.11 shows the p-n junction at equilibrium and the potential across the junction. The pu T is n-material has lost electrons, and p material has acquired electrons. The n material is thus positive relative to the p re R material. Since this potential tends to prevent the movement of FIGURE 14.11 (a) Diode under bl electron from the n region into the p region, it is often called a equilibrium (V = 0), (b) Barrier barrier potential. potential under no bias. E Example 14.3 Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and EXAMPLE 14.3 physically join it to another n-type semiconductor to get p-n junction? be C Solution No! Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much larger than the inter-atomic crystal spacing (~2 to 3 Å) and hence continuous contact at the atomic level will not be possible. The junction o N will behave as a discontinuity for the flowing charge carriers. 14.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE tt © A semiconductor diode [Fig. 14.12(a)] is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device. A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in Fig. 14.12(b). The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current (when the diode is under forward bias). The equilibrium barrier potential can be altered by applying an external voltage V across the diode. The situation of p-n junction diode under equilibrium FIGURE 14.12 (a) Semiconductor diode, (without bias) is shown in Fig. 14.11(a) and (b). (b) Symbol for p-n junction diode. 14.6.1 p-n junction diode under forward bias no When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative terminal [Fig. 14.13(a)], it is said to be forward biased. The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across the p-side and n-side of the junction is negligible. (This is because the resistance of the depletion region – a region where there are no charges – is very high compared to the resistance of n-side and p-side.) The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite to the 479  Physics built-in potential V0. As a result, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is reduced [Fig. 14.13(b)]. The effective barrier height under forward bias is (V 0 – V ). If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be reduced only slightly below the equilibrium value, and only a small number of carriers in the material—those that happen to d be in the uppermost energy levels—will possess enough energy to cross the junction. So the current will be small. If we increase the applied voltage significantly, the barrier height will be reduced he and more number of carriers will have the required energy. Thus the current increases. Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and reach p-side (where they are minority pu T carries). Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach is the n-side (where they are minority carries). This process under forward bias is known as minority carrier injection. At the FIGURE 14.13 (a) p-n re R junction diode under forward junction boundary, on each side, the minority carrier bl bias, (b) Barrier potential concentration increases significantly compared to the locations (1) without battery, (2) Low far from the junction. E battery voltage, and (3) High Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electrons on voltage battery. p-side diffuse from the junction edge of p-side to the other end of p-side. Likewise, the injected holes on n-side diffuse from the be C junction edge of n-side to the other end of n-side (Fig. 14.14). This motion of charged carriers on either side gives rise to current. The total diode forward current is sum of hole diffusion current and conventional current due to o N electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is usually in mA. 14.6.2 p-n junction diode under reverse bias tt © FIGURE 14.14 Forward bias When an external voltage (V ) is applied across the diode such minority carrier injection. that n-side is positive and p-side is negative, it is said to be reverse biased [Fig.14.15(a)]. The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region. The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier potential. As a result, the barrier height increases and the depletion region widens due to the change in the electric field. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is (V0 + V ), [Fig. 14.15(b)]. This suppresses the flow of electrons from n → p and holes from p → n. Thus, diffusion current, decreases enormously compared to the diode under forward bias. The electric field direction of the junction is such that if electrons on p-side or holes on n-side in their random motion come close to the junction, they will be swept to its majority zone. This drift of carriers no gives rise to current. The drift current is of the order of a few µA. This is quite low because it is due to the motion of carriers from their minority side to their majority side across the junction. The drift current is also there under forward bias but it is negligible (µA) when compared with current due to injected carriers which is usually in mA. The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even a small voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority carriers 480 from one side of the junction to the other side of the junction. The current  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction. The current under reverse bias is essentially voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage, known as breakdown voltage (Vbr ). When V = Vbr, the diode reverse current d increases sharply. Even a slight increase in the bias voltage causes large change in the current. If the reverse current is not limited by he an external circuit below the rated value (specified by the manufacturer) the p-n junction will get destroyed. Once it exceeds the rated value, the diode gets destroyed due to overheating. This can happen even for the diode under forward bias, if the forward current exceeds the rated value. pu T is The circuit arrangement for studying the V-I characteristics of a diode, (i.e., the variation of current as a function of applied FIGURE 14.15 (a) Diode re R voltage) are shown in Fig. 14.16(a) and (b). The battery is connected under reverse bias, bl to the diode through a potentiometer (or reheostat) so that the (b) Barrier potential under applied voltage to the diode can be changed. For different values reverse bias. E of voltages, the value of the current is noted. A graph between V and I is obtained as in Fig. 14.16(c). Note that in forward bias measurement, we use a milliammeter since the expected current is large be C (as explained in the earlier section) while a micrometer is used in reverse bias to measure the current. You can see in Fig. 14.16(c) that in forward o N tt © no FIGURE 14.16 Experimental circuit arrangement for studying V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode (a) in forward bias , (b) in reverse bias. (c) Typical V-I characteristics of a silicon diode. 481  Physics bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly, till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain value. After the characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon diode). d For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (~µA) and almost remains constant with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current. However, for special cases, at very high reverse bias (break down he voltage), the current suddenly increases. This special action of the diode is discussed later in Section 14.8. The general purpose diode are not used beyond the reverse saturation current region. The above discussion shows that the p-n junction diode primerly pu T is allows the flow of current only in one direction (forward bias). The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance. This re R property is used for rectification of ac voltages as discussed in the next bl section. For diodes, we define a quantity called dynamic resistance as the ratio of small change in voltage ∆V to a small change in current ∆I: E ∆V rd = (14.6) ∆I be C Example 14.4 The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in the Fig. 14.17. Calculate the resistance of the diode at (a) I D = 15 mA and (b) VD = –10 V. o N tt © FIGURE 14.17 no Solution Considering the diode characteristics as a straight line between I = 10 mA to I = 20 mA passing through the origin, we can EXAMPLE 14.4 calculate the resistance using Ohm’s law. (a) From the curve, at I = 20 mA, V = 0.8 V, I = 10 mA, V = 0.7 V rf b = ∆V/∆I = 0.1V/10 mA = 10 Ω (b) From the curve at V = –10 V, I = –1 µA, Therefore, rrb = 10 V/1µA= 1.0 × 107 Ω 482  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 14.7 APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER From the V-I characteristic of a junction diode we see that it allows current to pass only when it is forward biased. So if an alternating voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of the cycle when the diode is forward biased. This property d is used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit used for this purpose is called a rectifier. If an alternating voltage is applied across a he diode in series with a load, a pulsating voltage will appear across the load only during the half cycles of the ac input during which the diode is forward biased. Such rectifier circuit, as shown in pu T is Fig. 14.18, is called a half-wave rectifier. The secondary of a transformer supplies the desired ac voltage across terminals A and B. When the re R voltage at A is positive, the diode is forward biased bl and it conducts. When A is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and it does not conduct. The reverse E saturation current of a diode is negligible and can be considered equal to zero for practical purposes. (The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must be C be sufficiently higher than the peak ac voltage at the secondary of the transformer to protect the diode from reverse breakdown.) o N Therefore, in the positive half-cycle of ac there is a current through the load resistor R L and we FIGURE 14.18 (a) Half-wave rectifier circuit, (b) Input ac voltage and output get an output voltage, as shown in Fig. 14.18(b), voltage waveforms from the rectifier circuit. whereas there is no current in the negative half- tt © cycle. In the next positive half-cycle, again we get the output voltage. Thus, the output voltage, though still varying, is restricted to only one direction and is said to be rectified. Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is called as half-wave rectifier. The circuit using two diodes, shown in Fig. 14.19(a), gives output rectified voltage corresponding to both the positive as well as negative half of the ac cycle. Hence, it is known as full-wave rectifier. Here the p-side of the two diodes are connected to the ends of the secondary of the transformer. The n-side of the diodes are connected together and the output is taken between this common point of diodes and the midpoint of the secondary of the transformer. So for a full-wave rectifier the no secondary of the transformer is provided with a centre tapping and so it is called centre-tap transformer. As can be seen from Fig.14.19(c) the voltage rectified by each diode is only half the total secondary voltage. Each diode rectifies only for half the cycle, but the two do so for alternate cycles. Thus, the output between their common terminals and the centre- tap of the transformer becomes a full-wave rectifier output. (Note that there is another circuit of full wave rectifier which does not need a centre- tap transformer but needs four diodes.) Suppose the input voltage to A 483  Physics with respect to the centre tap at any instant is positive. It is clear that, at that instant, voltage at B being out of phase will be negative as shown in Fig.14.19(b). So, diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts (while D2 being reverse biased is not conducting). d Hence, during this positive half cycle we get an output current (and a output voltage he across the load resistor R L) as shown in Fig.14.19(c). In the course of the ac cycle when the voltage at A becomes negative with respect to centre tap, the voltage at B would be positive. In this part of the cycle diode pu T is D1 would not conduct but diode D2 would, giving an output current and output re R voltage (across RL ) during the negative half bl cycle of the input ac. Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as E the negative half of the cycle. Obviously, this is a more efficient circuit for getting rectified voltage or current than the half- be C wave rectifier The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. o N Though it is unidirectional it does not have a steady value. To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the output tt © terminals (parallel to the load RL). One can also use an inductor in series with RL for FIGURE 14.19 (a) A Full-wave rectifier the same purpose. Since these additional circuit; (b) Input wave forms given to the circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple diode D 1 at A and to the diode D2 at B; (c) Output waveform across the and give a pure dc voltage, so they are load RL connected in the full-wave called filters. rectifier circuit. Now we shall discuss the role of capacitor in filtering. When the voltage across the capacitor is rising, it gets charged. If there is no external load, it remains charged to the peak voltage of the rectified output. When there is a load, it gets discharged through the load and the voltage across it begins to fall. In the next half-cycle of no rectified output it again gets charged to the peak value (Fig. 14.20). The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product of capacitor C and the effective resistance R L used in the circuit and is called the time constant. To make the time constant large value of C should be large. So capacitor input filters use large capacitors. The output voltage obtained by using capacitor input filter is nearer to the peak voltage of the rectified voltage. This type of filter is most widely 484 used in power supplies.  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits d he FIGURE 14.20 (a) A full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter, (b) Input and output voltage of rectifier in (a). pu T 14.8 SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES is In the section, we shall discuss some devices which are basically junction re R diodes but are developed for different applications. bl 14.8.1 Zener diode E It is a special purpose semiconductor diode, named after its inventor C. Zener. It is designed to operate under reverse bias in the breakdown region and used as a voltage regulator. The symbol for Zener diode is be C shown in Fig. 14.21(a). Zener diode is fabricated by heavily doping both p-, and n- sides of the junction. Due to this, depletion region formed o N is very thin ( I3 > I2 > I1. tt © Example 14.6 The current in the forward bias is known to be more (~mA) than the current in the reverse bias (~µA). What is the reason then to operate the photodiodes in reverse bias? Solution Consider the case of an n-type semiconductor. Obviously, the majority carrier density (n ) is considerably larger than the minority hole density p (i.e., n >> p). On illumination, let the excess electrons and holes generated be ∆n and ∆p, respectively: EXAMPLE 14.6 n′ = n + ∆n p ′ = p + ∆p Here n′ and p ′ are the electron and hole concentrations* at any no particular illumination and n and p are carriers concentration when there is no illumination. Remember ∆n = ∆p and n >> p. Hence, the * Note that, to create an e-h pair, we spend some ener gy (photoexcitation, thermal excitation, etc.). Therefore when an electron and hole recombine the energy is released in the form of light (radiative recombination) or heat (non-radiative recombination). It depends on semiconductor and the method of fabrication of the p-n junction. For the fabrication of LEDs, semiconductors like GaAs, GaAs- GaP are used in which radiative recombination dominates. 487  Physics EXAMPLE 14.6 fractional change in the majority carriers (i.e., ∆n/n ) would be much less than that in the minority carriers (i.e., ∆p/p). In general, we can state that the fractional change due to the photo-effects on the minority carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable than the fractional change in the forward bias current. Hence, photodiodes are preferably used in the reverse bias condition d for measuring light intensity. he (ii) Light emitting diode It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out. pu T is When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n → p (where they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p → n (where they are re R minority carriers). At the junction boundary the concentration of minority bl carriers increases compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority E carriers near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than be C the band gap are emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum. Further increase in o N the forward current results in decrease of light intensity. LEDs are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum. The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, tt © typically around 5V. So care should be taken that high reverse voltages do not appear across them. LEDs that can emit red, yellow, orange, green and blue light are commercially available. The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a band gap of 1.8 eV (spectral range of visible light is from about 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm, i.e., from about 3 eV to 1.8 eV). The compound semiconductor Gallium Arsenide – Phosphide (GaAs 1–x P x ) is used for making LEDs of different colours. GaAs0.6 P0.4 (Eg ~ 1.9 eV) is used for red LED. GaAs (E g ~ 1.4 eV) is used for making infrared LED. These LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar alarm systems, optical communication, etc. Extensive research is being done for developing white LEDs which can replace incandescent lamps. no LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps: (i) Low operational voltage and less power. (ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required. (iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in other words it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic. (iv) Long life and ruggedness. 488 (v) Fast on-off switching capability.  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits (iii) Solar cell A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and the junction area d is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident because we are interested in more power. A simple p-n junction solar cell is shown in he Fig. 14.24. A p-Si wafer of about 300 µm is taken over which a thin layer (~0.3 µm) of n-Si is grown on one-side by diffusion process. The other side of pu T p-Si is coated with a metal (back contact). On the is top of n-Si layer, metal finger electrode (or metallic grid) is deposited. This acts as a front contact. The FIGURE 14.24 (a) Typical p-n junction re R metallic grid occupies only a very small fraction solar cell; (b) Cross-sectional view. bl of the cell area ( Eg ) be C close to the junction; (ii) separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region. Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side; (iii) the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by o N the front contact and holes reaching p-side are collected by the back contact. Thus p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to photovoltage. When an external load is connected as shown in tt © the Fig. 14.25(a) a photocurrent IL flows through the load. A typical I-V characteristics of a solar cell is shown in the Fig. 14.25(b). Note that the I – V characteristics of solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate axes. This is because a solar cell does not draw current but supplies the same to the load. Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell fabrication. Solar cells are made with semiconductors like Si (Eg = 1.1 eV), GaAs (Eg = 1.43 eV), CdTe (Eg = 1.45 eV), CuInSe2 (Eg = 1.04 eV), etc. The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are (i) band gap (~1.0 to 1.8 eV), (ii) high optical absorption (~104 cm –1), (iii) no electrical conductivity, (iv) availability of the raw material, and (v) cost. Note that sunlight is not always FIGURE 14.25 (a) A typical required for a solar cell. Any light with photon energies illuminated p-n junction solar cell; (b) I-V characteristics of a solar cell. greater than the bandgap will do. Solar cells are used to power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and also as power supply to some calculators. Production of low-cost photovoltaic cells for large-scale solar energy is a topic for research. 489  Physics Example 14.7 Why are Si and GaAs are preferred materials for solar cells? Solution The solar radiation spectrum received by us is shown in Fig. 14.26. d he pu T is re R bl E be C FIGURE 14.26 The maxima is near 1.5 eV. For photo-excitation, hν > Eg. Hence, o N semiconductor with band gap ~1.5 eV or lower is likely to give better solar conversion efficiency. Silicon has Eg ~ 1.1 eV while for GaAs it is ~1.53 eV. In fact, GaAs is better (in spite of its higher band gap) than Si because of its relatively higher absorption coefficient. If we choose materials like CdS or CdSe (E g ~ 2.4 eV), we can use only the high tt © energy component of the solar energy for photo-conversion and a significant part of energy will be of no use. The question arises: why we do not use material like PbS (Eg ~ 0.4 eV) EXAMPLE 14.7 which satisfy the condition hν > Eg for ν maxima corresponding to the solar radiation spectra? If we do so, most of the solar radiation will be absorbed on the top-layer of solar cell and will not reach in or near the depletion region. For effective electron-hole separation, due to the junction field, we want the photo-generation to occur in the junction region only. 14.9 J UNCTION TRANSISTOR The credit of inventing the transistor in the year 1947 goes to J. Bardeen no and W.H. Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, U.S.A. That transistor was a point-contact transistor. The first junction transistor consisting of two back-to-back p-n junctions was invented by William Schockley in 1951. As long as only the junction transistor was known, it was known simply as transistor. But over the years new types of transistors were invented and to differentiate it from the new ones it is now called the 490 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). Even now, often the word transistor  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits is used to mean BJT when there is no confusion. Since our study is limited to only BJT, we shall use the word transistor for BJT without any ambiguity. 14.9.1 Transistor: structure and action A transistor has three doped regions forming two p-n junctions d between them. Obviously, there are two types of transistors, as shown in Fig. 14.27. he (i) n-p-n transistor : Here two segments of n-type semiconductor (emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of p-type semiconductor (base). (ii) p-n-p transistor: Here two segments of p-type semiconductor (termed as emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of pu T is n-type semiconductor (termed as base). The schematic representations of an n-p-n and a p-n-p re R configuration are shown in Fig. 14.27(a). All the three segments of a bl transistor have different thickness and their doping levels are also different. In the schematic symbols used for representing p-n-p and E n-p-n transistors [Fig. 14.27(b)] the arrowhead shows the direction of conventional current in the transistor. A brief description of the three segments of a transistor is given below: be C Emitter: This is the segment on one side of the transistor shown in Fig. 14.27(a). It is of moderate size and heavily doped. It supplies a large number of majority carriers for the current flow through o N the transistor. Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped. Collector: This segment collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The collector side is moderately doped and larger in size as compared to the emitter. tt © We have seen earlier in the case of a p-n junction, that there is a formation of depletion region acorss the junction. In case of a transistor depletion regions are formed at the emitter base-junction and the base- collector junction. For understanding the action of a transistor, we have to consider the nature of depletion regions formed at these junctions. The charge carriers move across different regions of the transistor when proper voltages are applied across its terminals. The biasing of the transistor is done differently for different uses. The transistor can be used in two distinct ways. Basically, it was invented to function as an amplifier, a device which produces a enlarged copy of a signal. But later its use as a switch acquired equal importance. We shall study both these functions and the ways the no transistor is biased to achieve these mutually exclusive functions. FIGURE 14.27 First we shall see what gives the transistor its amplifying capabilities. (a) Schematic The transistor works as an amplifier, with its emitter -base junction representations of a forward biased and the base-collector junction reverse biased. This n-p-n transistor and situation is shown in Fig. 14.28, where VCC and VEE are used for creating p-n-p transistor, and the respective biasing. When the transistor is biased in this way it is (b) Symbols for n-p-n and p-n-p transistors. said to be in active state.We represent the voltage between emitter and base as VEB and that between the collector and the base as VCB. In 491  Physics Fig. 14.28, base is a common terminal for the two power supplies whose other terminals are connected to emitter and collector, respectively. So the two power supplies are represented as VEE, and VCC, respectively. In circuits, where emitter is the common terminal, the power supply between the d base and the emitter is represented as VBB and that between collector and emitter as VCC. he Let us see now the paths of current carriers in the transistor with emitter-base junction forward biased and base-collector junction reverse biased. The heavily doped emitter has a high concentration of majority carriers, which will be holes in a p-n-p pu T is transistor and electrons in an n-p-n transistor. These majority carriers enter the base region in re R large numbers. The base is thin and lightly doped. bl So the majority carriers there would be few. In a p-n-p transistor the majority carriers in the base E are electrons since base is of n-type semiconductor. The large number of holes entering the base from the emitter swamps the small number of electrons be C there. As the base collector-junction is reverse- biased, these holes, which appear as minority carriers at the junction, can easily cross the o N junction and enter the collector. The holes in the base could move either towards the base terminal to combine with the electrons entering from outside or cross the junction to enter into the collector and reach the collector terminal. The base is made thin tt © so that most of the holes find themselves near the reverse-biased base-collector junction and so cross the junction instead of moving to the base FIGURE 14.28 Bias Voltage applied on: (a) terminal. p-n-p transistor and (b) n-p-n transistor. It is interesting to note that due to forward bias a large current enters the emitter-base junction, but most of it is diverted to adjacent reverse-biased base-collector junction and the current coming out of the base becomes a very small fraction of the current that entered the junction. If we represent the hole current and the electron current crossing the forward biased junction by Ih and Ie respectively then the total current in a forward biased diode is the sum Ih + I e. We see that the emitter current I E = I h + Ie but the base no current IB t6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1 Therefore the waveform Y will be as shown in the Fig. 14.37. tt © EXAMPLE 14.11 FIGURE 14.37 (iii) AND Gate Input Output An AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. The output Y of no AND gate is 1 only when input A and input B are both 1. The logic A B Y symbol and truth table for this gate are given in Fig. 14.38 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 (b) FIGURE 14.38 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of AND gate. 503  Physics Example 14.12 Take A and B input waveforms similar to that in Example 14.11. Sketch the output waveform obtained from AND gate. Solution For t ≤ t 1; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0 For t1 to t2; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0 For t2 to t3; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 1 d For t3 to t4; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0 For t4 to t5; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 0 he For t5 to t6; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 0 For t > t 6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 0 Based on the above, the output waveform for AND gate can be drawn as given below. pu T is re R EXAMPLE 14.12 bl E FIGURE 14.39 be C (iv) NAND Gate o N This is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. If inputs A and B are both ‘1’, the output Y is not ‘1’. The gate gets its name from this NOT AND behaviour. Figure 14.40 shows the symbol and truth table of NAND gate. NAND gates are also called Universal Gates since by using these gates you can realise other basic gates like OR, AND and NOT (Exercises tt © 14.16 and 14.17). Input Output A B Y 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 (b) FIGURE 14.40 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of NAND gate. no Example 14.13 Sketch the output Y from a NAND gate having inputs A and B given below: EXAMPLE 14.13 Solution For t < t 1; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0 For t 1 to t2; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1 For t 2 to t3; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1 For t 3 to t4; A = 1, B = 0; Hence Y = 1 504  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits For t4 to t5; A = 1, B = 1; Hence Y = 0 For t5 to t6; A = 0, B = 0; Hence Y = 1 For t > t 6; A = 0, B = 1; Hence Y = 1 d he EXAMPLE 14.13 pu T is re R bl FIGURE 14.41 E (v) NOR Gate It has two or more inputs and one output. A NOT- operation applied after OR gate gives a NOT-OR gate (or simply NOR gate). Its output Y is be C ‘1’ only when both inputs A and B are ‘0’, i.e., neither one input nor the other is ‘1’. The symbol and truth table for NOR gate is given in Fig. 14.42. Input Output o N A B Y 0 0 1 0 1 0 tt © 1 0 0 1 1 0 (b) FIGURE 14.42 (a) Logic symbol, (b) Truth table of NOR gate. NOR gates are considered as universal gates because you can obtain all the gates like AND, OR, NOT by using only NOR gates (Exercises 14.18 and 14.19). 14.11 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS The conventional method of making circuits is to choose components no like diodes, transistor, R, L, C etc., and connect them by soldering wires in the desired manner. Inspite of the miniaturisation introduced by the discovery of transistors, such circuits were still bulky. Apart from this, such circuits were less reliable and less shock proof. The concept of fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of many passive components like R and C and active devices like diode and transistor) on a small single block (or chip) of a semiconductor has revolutionised the electronics technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC). The most widely used technology is the Monolithic Integrated Circuit. The word 505  Physics monolithic is a combination of two greek words, monos means single and lithos means stone. This, in effect, means that the entire circuit is formed on a single silicon crystal (or chip). The chip dimensions are as small as 1mm × 1mm or it could even be smaller. Figure 14.43 shows a chip in its protective plastic case, partly removed to reveal the connections coming out from the d ‘chip’ to the pins that enable it to make external connections. FIGURE 14.43 The casing and he Depending on nature of input signals, IC’s can be connection of a ‘chip’. grouped in two categories: (a) linear or analogue IC’s and (b) digital IC’s. The linear IC’s process analogue signals which change smoothly and continuously over a range of values between a maximum and a minimum. The output is more or less directly pu T is proportional to the input, i.e., it varies linearly with the input. One of the most useful linear IC’s is the operational amplifier. re R The digital IC’s process signals that have only two values. They bl contain circuits such as logic gates. Depending upon the level of integration (i.e., the number of circuit components or logic gates), the ICs are termed as Small Scale Integration, SSI (logic gates < 10); Medium E Scale Integration, MSI (logic gates < 100); Large Scale Integration, LSI (logic gates < 1000); and Very Large Scale Integration, VLSI (logic gates > 1000). The technology of fabrication is very involved but large scale be C industrial production has made them very inexpensive. FASTER AND SMALLER: THE FUTURE OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY o N The Integrated Chip (IC) is at the heart of all computer systems. In fact ICs are found in almost all electrical devices like cars, televisions, CD players, cell phones etc. The miniaturisation that made the modern personal computer possible could never have tt © happened without the IC. ICs are electronic devices that contain many transistors, resistors, capacitors, connecting wires – all in one package. You must have heard of the microprocessor. The microprocessor is an IC that processes all information in a computer, like keeping track of what keys are pressed, running programmes, games etc. The IC was first invented by Jack Kilky at Texas Instruments in 1958 and he was awarded Nobel Prize for this in 2000. ICs are produced on a piece of semiconductor crystal (or chip) by a process called photolithography. Thus, the entire Information Technology (IT) industry hinges on semiconductors. Over the years, the complexity of ICs has increased while the size of its features continued to shrink. In the past five decades, a dramatic miniaturisation in computer technology has made modern day computers faster and smaller. In the 1970s, Gordon Moore, co-founder of INTEL, pointed out that the memory capacity of a chip (IC) approximately doubled every one and a half years. This is popularly known as Moore’s law. The number of transistors per chip has risen exponentially and each year computers no are becoming more powerful, yet cheaper than the year before. It is intimated from current trends that the computers available in 2020 will operate at 40 GHz (40,000 MHz) and would be much smaller, more efficient and less expensive than present day computers. The explosive growth in the semiconductor industry and computer technology is best expressed by a famous quote from Gordon Moore: “If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the semiconductor industry, a Rolls Royce would get half a million miles per gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than to park it”. 506  Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits SUMMARY 1. Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state electronic devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc. 2. Lattice structure and the atomic structure of constituent elements d decide whether a particular material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor. 3. Metals have low resistivity (10–2 to 10–8 Ω m), insulators have very high he resistivity (>108 Ω m–1), while semiconductors have intermediate values of resistivity. 4. Semiconductors are elemental (Si, Ge) as well as compound (GaAs, CdS, etc.). pu T 5. Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. The presence is of charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an ‘intrinsic’ property of the material and these are obtained as a result of thermal excitation. The number of electrons (ne ) is equal to the number of holes (n h ) in intrinsic re R conductors. Holes are essentially electron vacancies with an effective bl positive charge. 6. The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ of a suitable E impurity in pure semiconductors. Such semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors. These are of two types (n-type and p-type). 7. In n-type semiconductors, n e >> nh while in p-type semiconductors n h >> ne. be C 8. n-type semiconducting Si or Ge is obtained by doping with pentavalent atoms (donors) like As, Sb, P, etc., while p-type Si or Ge can be obtained by doping with trivalent atom (acceptors) like B, Al, In etc. o N 9. n enh = n i2 in all cases. Further, the material possesses an overall charge neutrality. 10. There are two distinct band of energies (called valence band an