Systems Design and Analysis I PDF

Systems Design and Anaylsis I Dr. Ibahim Elsemman Basic Defination from Free IEEE dictionary system 1. combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes [ISO/IEC/IEEE 15939:2017 Systems and software engineering — Measurement process, 3.38; ISO/IEC...

Systems Design and Anaylsis I Dr. Ibahim Elsemman Basic Defination from Free IEEE dictionary system 1. combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes [ISO/IEC/IEEE 15939:2017 Systems and software engineering — Measurement process, 3.38; ISO/IEC 25000:2014 Systems and software Engineering — Systems and software product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) — Guide to SQuaRE, 4.38; ISO/IEC TR 90005:2008 Systems engineering — Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001 to system life cycle processes, 2.1; ISO/IEC TS 24748-1:2016 Systems and software engineering — Life cycle management — Part 1: Guide for life cycle management, 2.53; ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015 Systems and software engineering — System life cycle processes, 4.1.46]2. product of an acquisition process that is delivered to the user [IEEE 15288.2:2014 IEEE Standard for Technical Reviews and Audits on Defense Programs, 3.1]3. something of interest as a whole or as comprised of parts [ISO/IEC 10746-2:2009 Information technology — Open Distributed Processing — Reference Model: Foundations, 6.5]4. interacting combination of elements to accomplish a defined objective [ISO/IEC TR 19759:2016 Software Engineering — Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK), 1.1.6]5. set of interrelated or interacting elements [ISO/IEC TR 90005:2008 Systems engineering — Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001 to system life cycle processes, 2.2] Note 1 to entry: A system is sometimes considered as a product or as the services it provides. In practice, the interpretation of its meaning is frequently clarified by the use of an associative noun, e.g., aircraft system. Alternatively, the word 'system' can be replaced by a context-dependent synonym, e.g., aircraft, though this obscures the system perspective. A complete system includes all of the associated equipment, facilities, material, computer programs, firmware, technical documentation, services, and personnel required for operations and support to the degree necessary for self-sufficient use in its intended environment. https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/en/#iso:std:iso-iec-ieee:24765:ed-2:v1:en  analysis 1. process of studying a system by partitioning the system into parts (functions, components, or objects) and determining how the parts relate to each other2. investigation and collection phase of development that aims to specify types of users and their information needs  design 1. [process] to define the architecture, system elements, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or system element [ISO/IEC TS 24748- 1:2016 Systems and software engineering — Life cycle management — Part 1: Guide for life cycle management, 2.16; ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015 Systems and software engineering — System life cycle processes, 4.1.15]2. result of the process in (1) [ISO/IEC TS 24748-1:2016 Systems and software engineering — Life cycle management — Part 1: Guide for life cycle management, 2.17; ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015 Systems and software engineering — System life cycle processes, 4.1.16]3. process of defining the software architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a software system to satisfy specified requirements 4. process of conceiving, inventing, or contriving a scheme for turning a computer program specification into an operational program 5. phase of development concerned with determining what documentation will be provided in a product and the nature of the documentation [ISO/IEC 26513:2009 Systems and software engineering — Requirements for testers and reviewers of user documentation, 3.8]  system analysis 1. systematic investigation of a real or planned system to determine the information requirements and processes of the system and how these relate to each other and to any other system [ISO/IEC 2382:2015, Information technology — Vocabulary]  system design 1. process of defining the hardware and Software architecture, components, modules, interfaces and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements [ISO/IEC 2382:2015, Information technology — Vocabulary] What is the Information System? What is the relation between IT and IS Organizations can use IT to solve business problems and achieve a competitive advantage in the marketplace. Not all business problems can be solved with IT. Therefore, you must continue to develop your business skills! Any organization will have to survive and compete in an environment that has been radically transformed by information technology. (examples) Any organization must use IT effectively to compete successfully.  Why Should I Study Information Systems? First, each empolyee have a computer and a desk. The second reason all organizations are adopting a digital transformation. You should learn IS to be an informed user (a person knowledgeable about ISs and IT). In general, informed users obtain greater value from whichever technologies they use. You will enjoy many benefits from being an informed user of IT. Social computing Third reason The third reason to learn about ISs and IT is that managing the IS function within an organization is no longer the exclusive responsibility of the IS department. Rather, users now play key roles in every step of this process. Managing Information Resources In the modern organization, computers are located in all departments, and almost all employees use computers in their work. This situation, known as end-user computing, has led to a partnership between the MIS department and the end users. The MIS department now acts as more of a consultant to end users, viewing them as customers. In fact, the main function of the MIS department is to use IT to solve end-users’ business problems. What are data, information, and knowledge? Data items refer to an elementary description of things, events, activities, and transactions that are recorded, classified, and stored, but are not organized to convey any specific meaning. Data items can be numbers, letters, figures, sounds, and images. Examples of data items are collections of numbers (e.g., 3.11, 2.96, 3.95, 1.99, 2.08) and characters (e.g., B, A, C, A, B, D, F, C). Information refers to data that have been organized so that they have meaning and value to the recipient. For example, a grade point average (GPA) by itself is data, but a student’s name coupled with their GPA is information. The recipient interprets the meaning and draws conclusions and implications from the information. Knowledge consists of data and/or information that have been organized and processed to convey understanding, experience, accumulated learning, and expertise as they apply to a current business problem. For example, suppose that a company recruiting at your school has found over time that students with grade point averages over 3.0 have experienced the greatest success in its management program.  Computer-based information system (CBIS) A computer-based information system (CBIS) is an information system that uses computer technology to perform some or all of its intended tasks. Although not all information systems are computerized, today most are. For this reason, the term “information system” is typically used synonymously with “computer-based information system.” The basic components of computer-based information systems are listed here. Hardware consists of devices such as the processor, monitor, keyboard, and printer. Together, these devices accept, process, and display data and information. Software is a program or collection of programs that enables the hardware to process data. A database is a collection of related files or tables containing data. A network is a connecting system (wireline or wireless) that enables multiple computers to share resources. Procedures are the instructions for combining these components to process information and generate the desired output. People use the hardware and software, interface with it, or utilize its output.  Information systems perform these various tasks via a wide spectrum of applications. An application (or app) is a computer IT in any organization program designed to support a specific task or business process. (A synonymous term is application program.) Each functional area or department within a business organization uses dozens of application programs. For instance, the human resources department sometimes uses one application for screening job applicants and another for monitoring employee turnover. The collection of application programs in a single department is usually referred to as a functional area information system (also known as a departmental information system). For example, the collection of application programs in the human resources area is called the human resources information system (HRIS). There are collections of application programs—that is, departmental information systems—in the other functional areas as well, such as accounting, finance, marketing, and production/operations. The main IS functions Interorganizational information systems (IOSs) ERP systems and TPSs function primarily within a single organization. Information systems that connect two or more organizations are referred to as interorganizational information systems (IOSs). IOSs support many interorganizational operations, of which supply chain management is the best known. An organization’s supply chain is the flow of materials, information, money, and services from suppliers of raw materials through factories and warehouses to the end customers. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) systems are another type of interorganizational information system. These systems enable organizations to conduct transactions, called business- to-business (B2B) electronic commerce, and customers to conduct transactions with businesses, called business-to- consumer (B2C) electronic commerce. The role of Information systems in the organizational structure  What is the organization An organization is a stable, formal social structure that takes resources from the environment and processes them to produce outputs. This technical definition focuses on three elements of an organization. Capital and labor are primary production factors provided by the environment. The organization (the firm) The role of Information systems in the organizational structure Business Processes A business process is an ongoing collection of related activities or tasks that in a specific sequence create a product or a service of value to the organization, its business partners, and its customers. The process involves three fundamental elements: Inputs: Materials, services, and information that flow through and are transformed as a result of process activities Resources: People and equipment that perform process activities Outputs: The product or a service created by the process Two fundamental metrics that organizations employ in assessing heir processes: Effectiveness: creating outputs of value to the business process customer—for example, in a manufacturing business process, effectiveness would be measured as making high-quality products, or in a sales business process effectiveness could be measured as an employee meeting the monthly sales quota. Efficiency: focuses on doing things without wasting resources; for example, progressing from one process activity to another without delay or without wasting money. In a nutshell, effectiveness is about getting things done, and efficiency is about getting more things done with the same or fewer resources. Please note that All of the business processes fall with in a single department or functional area of the company. An organization’s business processes can create a competitive advantage if they enable the company to innovate or to execute more effectively and efficiently than its competitors. They can also be liabilities, however, if they make the company less responsive and productive Good business processes are vital to organizational success. But how can organizations determine if their business processes are well designed? The first step is to document the process by describing its steps, its inputs and outputs, and its resources. The organization can then analyze the process and, if necessary, modify it to improve its performance. cross-functional business processes E-ticket booking It is a flow chart, but not for algorithm. Bussiness process flowchart describes how the order of steps to make a specific function Information Systems and Business Processes Information systems facilitate communication and coordination among different functional areas, and allow easy exchange of, and access to, data across processes. Specifically, ISs play a vital role in three areas: executing the process: IS and the processes are usually intertwined. If the IS does not work, the process cannot be executed. An IS helps execute processes by informing people when it is time to complete a task, by providing the necessary data to complete the task, and, in some cases, by providing the means to complete the task. capturing and storing process data: Processes create data such as dates, times, product numbers, quantities, prices, and addresses, as well as who did what, when, and where. IS captures and stores these data, commonly referred to as process data or transaction data. Some of these data are generated and automatically captured by the IS. These are data related to who completes an activity, when, and where. Other data are generated outside the IS and must be entered into it. monitoring process performance: IS can monitor the state of the various business processes. That is, the IS indicates how well a process is executing. The IS performs this role by evaluating information about a process. This information can be created at either the instance level (i.e., a specific task or activity) or at the process level (i.e., the process as a whole). THE IS AIMS TO DO THESE THREE STEPS. PLEASE NOTE MOST OF SYSTEMS USES ONLY THE SECOND POINT: THIS IS WRONG Try by your self Describe several business processes carried out at our faculty. Draw this business process Business Process Improvement Excellence in executing business processes is widely recognized as the underlying basis for all significant measures of competitive performance in an organization. Customer satisfaction: The result of optimizing and aligning business processes to fulfill customers’ needs, wants, and desires. Cost reduction: The result of optimizing operations and supplier processes. Cycle and fulfilment time reduction: The result of optimizing the manufacturing and logistics processes. Quality: The result of optimizing the design, development, and production processes. Differentiation: The result of optimizing the marketing and innovation processes. Productivity: The result of optimizing each individual work process. Four Important Courses to Make Enterprise software Project Mangment System Design and Anaylsis Software Engineering User Experience (UX) Systems development life cycle Systems development life cycle System Design System Design and Anaylsis II and Anaylsis I Do we really need project managment in software developlment? A survey of hundreds of corporate software development projects indicated that five out of six software projects are considered unsuccessful [Johnson 95], and approximately a third of software projects are canceled. The remaining projects delivered software at almost double the expected budget and time to develop as originally planned. William J. Brown et al, AntiPatterns Refactoring Software, Architectures, and Projects in Crisis Software Development Process Visual Description of How the 14 steps during the Software Development Process Lecture 2: What do we need from the the Information System Simple Equation Devloping Software = project We learn project mangement to make good softwares. Agree or do not agree Software is a collection alghorithm. We should write algorithms to make a new software. Example We are here Agree or do not agree Software is a collection alghorithm. We should write algorithms to make a new software. Software Development Process Visual Description of How the 14 steps during the Software Development Process  Building software is not easy task. We have to plan and uses resources efficiently.  I am not teaching software Engineering course. But I teach you what is project mangement? How can you use project managment skills to make good software or information systems. Please remember this ”A survey of hundreds of corporate software development projects indicated that five out of six software projects are considered unsuccessful [Johnson 95], and approximately a third of software projects are canceled. The remaining projects delivered software at almost double the expected budget and time to develop as originally planned.” Lecture 2: Planning What is Project? What Is a Project? A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.  Project Management is rapidly becoming a standard way of doing business. What is a program? A program is a group of related projects designed to accomplish a common goal over an extended period of time. Each project within a program has a project manager. The major differences lie in scale and time span. Program management is the process of managing a group of ongoing, interdependent, related projects in a coordinated way to achieve strategic objectives. The major characteristics of a project 1. An established objective. 2. A defined life span with a beginning and an end. 3. Usually, the involvement of several departments and professionals. 4. Typically, doing something that has never been done before. 5. Specific time, cost, and performance requirements. What a Project Is Not? Projects should not be confused with everyday work. A project is not routine, repetitive work! Ordinary daily work typically requires doing the same or similar work over and over, while a project is done only once; a new product or service exists when the project is completed. Examine the list in The next Table that compares routine, repetitive work and projects. Recognizing the difference is important because too often resources can be used up on daily operations which may not contribute to longer range organization strategies that require innovative new products. The Project Life Cycle Defining stage: Specifications of the project are defined; project objectives are established; teams are formed; major responsibilities are assigned. Planning stage: The level of effort increases, and plans are developed to determine what the project will entail, when it will be scheduled, whom it will benefit, what quality level should be maintained, and what the budget will be. Executing stage: A major portion of the project work takes place—both physical and mental. The physical product is produced (a bridge, a report, a software program). Time, cost, and specification measures are used for control. Is the project on schedule, on budget, and meeting specifications? What are the forecasts of each of these measures? What revisions/changes are necessary? Closing stage: Closing includes three activities: delivering the project product to the customer, redeploying project resources, and post-project review. The Project Manager Good project managers are always in demand. Every industry is looking for effective people who can get the right things done on time. Project managers are ultimately responsible for performance (frequently with too little authority). They must ensure that appropriate trade-offs are made among the time, cost, and performance requirements of the project. Project managers must work with a diverse troupe of characters to complete projects. They are typically the direct link to the customer and must manage the tension between customer expectations and what is feasible and reasonable. Project managers provide direction, coordination, and integration to the project team, which is often made up of part-time participants loyal to their functional departments. They often must work with a cadre of outsiders—vendors, suppliers, subcontractors—who do not necessarily share their project allegience. Project managers must decide what and how things should be done instead of simply managing set processes. They must meet the challenges of each phase of the project life cycle, and even oversee the dissolution of their operation when the project is completed. Project Scope (define) Software Development Process Visual Description of How the 14 steps during the Software Development Process Defining the Project Scope You should know that: My project do these, but not World do these Project  Project objective. The first step of project scope definition is to define the overall objective to meet your customer’s need(s). For example, as a result of extensive market research a computer software company decides to develop a program that automatically translates verbal sentences in English to Russian. The project should be completed within three years at a cost not to exceed $1.5 million. Deliverables. The next step is to define major deliverables—the expected, measurable outputs over the life of the project. For example, deliverables in the early design phase of a project might be a list of specifications. In the second phase deliverables could be software coding and a technical manual. The next phase could be the prototype. The final phase could be final tests and approved software. Note: Deliverables and requirements are often used interchangeably. Milestones. A milestone is a significant event in a project that occurs at a point in time. The milestone schedule shows only major segments of work; it represents first, rough-cut estimates of time, cost, and resources for the project. The milestone schedule is built using the deliverables as a platform to identify major segments of work and an end date—for example, testing complete and finished by July 1 of the same year. Milestones should be natural, important control points in the project. Milestones should be easy for all project participants to recognize.  Technical requirements. More frequently than not, a product or service will have technical requirements to ensure proper performance. Technical requirements typically clarify either the deliverables or define the performance specifications. For example, a technical requirement for a personal computer might be the ability to accept 120- volt alternating current or 240-volt direct current without any adapters or user switches. Another well-known example is the ability of 911 emergency systems to identify the caller’s phone number and location of the phone. Examples from information systems projects include speed and capacity of database systems and connectivity with alternative systems. Limits and exclusions. The limits of scope should be defined. Failure to do so can lead to false expectations and to expending resources and time on the wrong problem. Examples of limits are: work on site is allowed only between the hours of 8:00 pm - 5:00 am; system maintenance and repair will be done only up to one month after final inspection; client will be billed for additional training beyond that prescribed in the contract. Exclusions further define the boundary of the project by stating what is not included. Examples include: data will be collected by the client, not the contractor; a house will be built, but no landscaping or security devices added; software will be installed, but no training given. Reviews with customer. Completion of the scope checklist ends with a review with your customer—internal or external. The main concern here is the understanding of and agreement to expectations. Is the customer getting what he or she desires in deliverables? Does the project definition identify key accomplishments, budgets, timing, and performance requirements? Are questions of limits and exclusions covered? Clear communication in all these issues is imperative to avoid claims or misunderstanding. Please rember this Scope definition should be as brief as possible but complete; one or two pages are typical for small projects. Understand why it is important to establish project priorities in terms of cost, time, and performance. One of the primary jobs of a project manager is to manage the trade-offs among time, cost, and performance. To do so, project managers must define and understand the nature of the priorities of the project. They need to have a candid discussion with the project customer and upper management to establish the relative importance of  Priority Matrix One technique found in practice that is useful for this purpose is completing a priority matrix for the project to identify which criterion is constrained, which should be enhanced, and which can be accepted: Constrain. The original parameter is fixed. The project must meet the completion date, specifications and scope of the project, or budget. Enhance. Given the scope of the project, which criterion should be optimized? In the case of time and cost, this usually means taking advantage of opportunities to either reduce costs or shorten the schedule. Conversely, with regard to performance, enhancing means adding value to the project. Accept. For which criterion is it tolerable not to meet the original parameters? When trade-offs have to be made, is it permissible for the schedule to slip, to reduce the scope and performance of the project, or to go over budget? Step 3: Creating the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Once the scope and deliverables have been identified, the work of the project can be successively subdivided into smaller and smaller work elements. The outcome of this hierarchical process is called the work breakdown structure (WBS). Use of a WBS helps to assure project managers that all products and work elements are identified, to integrate the project with the current organization, and to establish a basis for control. Basically, the WBS is an outline of the project with different levels of detail. work package The lowest level of the WBS is called a work package. Work packages are short duration tasks that have a definite start and stop point, consume resources, and represent cost. Each work package is a control point. 1. Defines work (what). 2. Identifies time to complete a work package (how long). 3. Identifies a time-phased budget to complete a work package (cost). 4. Identifies resources needed to complete a work package (how much). 5. Identifies a single person responsible for units of work (who). 6. Identifies monitoring points for measuring progress (how well). Responsibility Matrix Process Breakdown Structure Information systems projects typically fall in this category— for example, creating an extranet website or an internal software database system. Process projects are driven by performance requirements, not by plans/blueprints. Some practitioners choose to utilize what we refer to as a process breakdown structure (PBS) instead of the classic WBS. Integration projection with Organization  4.8 Project Communication Plan Once the project deliverables and work are clearly identified, following up with an internal communication plan is vital. Stories abound of poor communication as a major contributor to project failure. Having a robust communications plan can go a long way toward mitigating project problems and can ensure that customers, team members, and other stakeholders have the information to do their jobs. Project communication plans address the following core questions: ∙ What information needs to be collected and when? ∙ Who will receive the information? ∙ What methods will be used to gather and store information? ∙ What are the limits, if any, on who has access to certain kinds of information? ∙ When will the information be communicated? ∙ How will it be communicated? Developing a communication plan that answers these questions usually entails the following basic steps: Stakeholder analysis. Identify the target groups. Typical groups could be the customer, sponsor, project team, project office, or anyone who needs project information to make decisions and/or contribute to project progress. A common tool found in practice to initially identify and analyze major project stakeholders’ communication needs is presented in the next figure. How and what is communicated is influenced by the stakeholder interest and power. Some of these stakeholders may have the power either to block or enhance your project. Dissemination modes. In today’s world, traditional status report meetings are being supplemented by e-mail, teleconferencing, SharePoint, and a variety of database sharing programs to circulate information. In particular, many companies are using the Web to create a “virtual project office” to store project information. Project management software feeds information directly to the website so that different people have immediate access to relevant project information. Sources of information. When the information needs are identified, the next step is to determine the sources of information. That is, where does the information reside? How will it be collected? For example, information relating to the milestone report, team meetings, and project status meetings would be found in the minutes and reports of various groups. Responsibility and timing. Determine who will send out the information. For example, a common practice is to have secretaries of meetings forward the minutes or specific information to the appropriate stakeholders. In some cases the responsibility lies with the project manager or project office. Timing and frequency of distribution appropriate to the information need to be established. Developing a Project Plan There are three basic relationships that must be established for activities included in a project network. The relationships can be found by answering the following three questions for each activity: 1. Which activities must be completed immediately before this activity? These activities are called predecessor activities. 2. Which activities must immediately follow this activity? These activities are called successor activities. 3. Which activities can occur while this activity is taking place? This is known as a concurrent or parallel relationship. Network Information Adding Activity time information What are the critical paths? Gantt chart Calendar Dates Ultimately you will want to assign calendar dates to your project activities. If a computer program is not used, dates are assigned manually. Lay out a calendar of workdays (exclude non-workdays), and number them. Then relate the calendar workdays to the workdays on your project network. Most computer programs will assign calendar dates automatically after you identify start dates, time units, non- workdays, and other information. Main Steps in the project management work package The lowest level of the WBS is called a work package. Work packages are short duration tasks that have a definite start and stop point, consume resources, and represent cost. Each work package is a control point. 1. Defines work (what). 2. Identifies time to complete a work package (how long). 3. Identifies a time-phased budget to complete a work package (cost). 4. Identifies resources needed to complete a work package (how much). 5. Identifies a single person responsible for units of work (who). 6. Identifies monitoring points for measuring progress (how well).  Types of Resource Constraints People. This is the most obvious and important project resource. Human resources are usually classified by the skills they bring to the project—for example, programmer, mechanical engineer, welder, inspector, marketing director, supervisor. In rare cases some skills are interchangeable, but usually with a loss of productivity. The many differing skills of human resources add to the complexity of scheduling projects. Materials. Project materials cover a large spectrum: for example, chemicals for a scientific project, concrete for a road project, survey data for a marketing project. Material availability and shortages have been blamed for the delay of many projects. When it is known that a lack of availability of materials is important and probable, materials should be included in the project network plan and schedule. For example, delivery and placement of an oil rig tower in a Siberian oil field has a very small time window during one summer month. Equipment. Equipment is usually presented by type, size, and quantity. In some cases equipment can be interchanged to improve schedules, but this is not typical. Equipment is often overlooked as a constraint. The most common oversight is to assume the resource pool is more than adequate for the project. For example, if a project needs one earthmoving tractor six months from now and the organization owns four, it is common to assume the resource will not delay the pending project. However, when the earthmoving tractor is due on-site in six months, all four machines Classification of a Scheduling Problem A time-constrained project is one that must be completed by an imposed date. If required, resources can be added to ensure the project is completed by a specific date. Although time is the critical factor, resource usage should be no more than is necessary and sufficient. A resource-constrained project is one that assumes the level of resources available cannot be exceeded. If the resources are inadequate, it will be acceptable to delay the project, but as little as possible. Resource Allocation Methods For the purpose of demonstration, the Botanical Garden project uses only one resource (backhoes); all backhoes are interchangeable. Final Program Network Test your self. Why Estimating Time and Cost Is Important? Once resource assignments have been finalized, we are able to develop a baseline bud-get schedule for the project. Using your project schedule, you can time-phase work packages and assign them to their respective scheduled activities to develop a budget schedule over the life of your project. Understanding the reason for time-phasing your budget is very important. Without a time-phased budget good project schedule and cost control are impossible. Why a Time-Phased Budget Baseline Is Needed? The need for a time-phased budget baseline is demonstrated in the following scenario. The development of a new product is to be completed in 10 weeks at an estimated cost of $400,000 per week for a total cost of $4 million. Management wants a status report at the end of five weeks. The following information has been collected: Planned costs for the first five weeks are $2,000,000. Actual costs for the first five weeks are $2,400,000. How are we doing? It would be easy to draw the conclusion there is a $400,000 cost over-run. But we really have no way of knowing. The $400,000 may represent money spent to move the project ahead of schedule.  Assume another set of data at the end of five weeks: Planned costs for the first five weeks are $2,000,000. Actual costs for the first five weeks are $1,700,000. Is the project costing $300,000 less than we expected? Perhaps. But the $300,000 may represent the fact that the project is behind schedule and work has not started. Could it be the project is behind schedule and over cost? We cannot tell from these data. The many systems found in the real world that use only planned funds (a constant burn rate) and actual costs can provide false and misleading information. work package The lowest level of the WBS is called a work package. Work packages are short duration tasks that have a definite start and stop point, consume resources, and represent cost. Each work package is a control point. 1. Defines work (what). 2. Identifies time to complete a work package (how long). 3. Identifies a time-phased budget to complete a work package (cost). 4. Identifies resources needed to complete a work package (how much). 5. Identifies a single person responsible for units of work (who). 6. Identifies monitoring points for measuring progress (how well). Example 1 Example 2 Importamt defination The outcome of these budget allocations is the project cost baseline (also called planned value—PV), which is used to determine cost and schedule variances as the project is implemented. Real Example Part 2 Anaylsis Defining the Project Scope You should know that: My project do these, but not World do these Project Anaylsis Part Data Flow Diagramming Mechanics Business Process Modelling Activity Diagram DATA FLOW DIAGRAMMING MECHANICS Example Rules Governing Data Flow Diagramming Advanced Example Busniess Process Modelling Activity Diagram Mapping user requiremts to our tools You might also want to create a small, personal database using a software product such as Microsoft Access. In that case, you will need to be familiar with at least the basics of the product. After the data are stored in your organization’s databases, they must be accessible in a form that helps users to make decisions (Microsoft Power BI). Organizations accomplish this objective by developing data warehouses. You should become familiar with data warehouses because they are invaluable decision-making tools. We discuss data warehouses in Section 5.4. Managing Data: the Difficulties of Managing Data First, the amount of data increases exponentially with time. Much historical data must be kept for a long time, and new data are added rapidly. For example, to support millions of customers, large retailers such as Walmart have to manage many petabytes of data. (A petabyte is approximately 1,000 terabytes, or trillions of bytes. Data are also scattered throughout organizations, and they are collected by many individuals using various methods and devices. These data are frequently stored in numerous servers and locations and in different computing systems, databases, formats, and human and computer languages.  Data rot refers primarily to problems with the media on which the data are stored. Over time, temperature, humidity, and exposure to light can cause physical problems with storage media and thus make it difficult to access the data. The second aspect of data rot is that finding the machines needed to access the data can be difficult. For example, it is almost impossible today to find eight-track players to listen to music on. Consequently, a library of eight-track tapes has become relatively worthless, unless you have a functioning eight-track player or you convert the tapes to a more modern medium such as DVDs. Data security, quality, and integrity are critical, yet they are easily jeopardized. Legal requirements relating to data also differ among countries as well as among industries, and they change frequently. Data Governance Data governance is an approach to managing information across an entire organization. Master data management is a process that spans all of an organization’s business processes and applications. It provides companies with the ability to store, maintain, exchange, and synchronize a consistent, accurate, and timely “single version of the truth” for the company’s master data Master data are a set of core data, such as customer, product, employee, vendor, geographic location, and so on, that span the enterprise’s information systems. It is important to distinguish between master data and transactional data. Transactional data, which are generated and captured by operational systems, describe the business’s activities, or transactions. In contrast, master data are applied to multiple transactions, and they are used to categorize, aggregate, and evaluate the transactional data.  Example: What are the main problem in the next table? Give an example of master data (student, course, student’s marks) and you opened a file to store these data Student Name Student Course Course Course Course Term Year Exam Date Student Number ID Name Max Pass degree Ibrahim 6677 IS221 Information 100 50 2020-2021 15/01/2022 80 System first term Mostafa 6678 IS221 Information 100 50 2020-2021 15/01/2022 90 System first term Mennatallah 6678 IS221 Information 100 50 2020-2021 15/01/2022 95 System first term Ibrahim 6677 IS221 Database 100 50 2020-2021 15/06/2021 60 second term Mostafa 6677 IS222 Database 100 50 2020-2021 15/06/2022 80 second term  Here is the code struct data{ void addStudent (i,Name,SN,...,degree) { char StudentName , char StudentNumber, stringcopy(student[i].StudentName,Name);... stringcopy(student[i].StudentNumber,SN); float StudentDegree} ;... student[i].StudentDegree = degree; Data Students } The main problem in file system and the advantage in database Data redundancy: The same data are stored in multiple locations. Data isolation: Applications cannot access data associated with other applications. Data inconsistency: Various copies of the data do not agree. Database systems also maximize the following: Data security: Because data are “put in one place” in databases, there is a risk of losing a lot of data at one time. Therefore, databases must have extremely high-security measures in place to minimize mistakes and deter attacks. Data integrity: Data meet certain constraints; for example, there are no alphabetic characters in a Social Insurance Number field. Data independence: Applications and data are independent of one another; that is, applications and data are not linked to each other, so all applications are able to access the same data Database management system A database management system (DBMS) is a set of programs that provide users with tools to create and manage a database. Managing a database refers to the processes of adding, deleting, accessing, modifying, and analyzing data that are stored in a database. An organization can access these data by using query and reporting tools that are part of the DBMS or by utilizing application programs specifically written to perform this function. DBMSs also provide the mechanisms for maintaining the integrity of stored data, managing security and user access, and recovering information if the system fails. Because databases and DBMSs are essential to all areas of business, they must be carefully managed.  An entity is a database table data model is a diagram that represents entities in the database and their relationships An instance is a row in a database table. An Attribute is a field name, such as studentName, studentDegree primary key is an attribute having two constraints: a unique value index A foreign key is …  Query Languages The most commonly performed database operation is searching for information. Structured query language (SQL) is the most popular query language SELECT Student_Name FROM Student_Database WHERE Grade_Point_Average > = 3.40 and Grade_Point_Average < 3.60;  Data Warehouses and Data Marts Now, the company built the used it for 10 years. The challenge is to provide users with access to corporate data so they can analyze the data to make better decisions. if a manager needed to know the trend in the profit margins on used books over the past 10 years, then he/she would have to construct a very complicated SQL or QBE query. The complicated queries might take a long time to answer, and they also might degrade the performance of the databases. The reasons are that: transactional databases are designed to access a single record at a time. In contrast, we need to access large groups of related records. Data warehouse and data marts A data warehouse is a repository of historical data that are organized by subject to support decision makers within the organization. A data mart is a low-cost, scaled-down version of a data warehouse that is designed for the end-user needs in a strategic business unit (SBU) or an individual department. Typically, groups that need a single or a few business analytics applications require only a data mart rather than a data warehouse. What do Dataware reprsent?  The benefits of data warehousing include the Data warehouse framework. following: End users can access needed data quickly and easily through web browsers because these data are located in one place. End users can conduct extensive analysis with data in ways that were not previously possible. End users can obtain a consolidated view of organizational data. Metadata is important to maintain data about the data, known as metadata, in the data warehouse. Both the IT personnel who operate and manage the data warehouse and the users who access the data require metadata. Users Once the data are loaded in a data mart or warehouse, they can be accessed. At this point, the organization begins to obtain business value from BI; all of the prior stages constitute creating BI infrastructure. Storing the Data Organizations can choose from a variety of architectures to store decision-support data. The most common architecture is one central enterprise data warehouse, without data marts. Most organizations use this approach because the data stored in the warehouse are accessed by all users, and they represent the single version of the truth.  Data warehouse framework. Data Quality The quality of the data in the warehouse must meet users’ needs. If it does not, then users will not trust the data and ultimately will not use it. Most organizations find that the quality of the data in source systems is poor and must be improved before the data can be used in the data warehouse. Some of the data can be improved with data-cleansing software. Governance To ensure that BI is meeting their needs, organizations must implement governance to plan and control their BI activities. Governance requires that people, committees, and processes be in place. Companies that are effective in BI governance often create a senior-level committee composed of vice presidents and directors who (1) ensure that the business strategies and BI strategies are in alignment, (2) prioritize projects, and (3) allocate resources. These companies also establish a middle-management–level committee that oversees the various projects in the BI portfolio to ensure that these projects are being completed in accordance with the company’s objectives. Finally, lower-level operational committees perform tasks such as creating data definitions and identifying and solving data problems. All of these committees rely on the collaboration and contributions of business users and IT personnel. Telegraph Developed in the 1830s and 1840s by Samuel Morse (1791-1872) and other inventors, the telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication. It worked by transmitting electrical signals over a wire laid between stations. Fax Can send images and papers Client/server (1983-now) Client-server systems began to emerge in the United States in the early 1980s as computing transitioned from large mainframes to distributed processing using multiple workstations or personal computers. Corporations quickly adopted client-server systems, which became the backbones of their office automation and communication infrastructure． Network in any organization The curent network How do web pages work? Browsers are applications that can display web pages. E.g. Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, Edge, etc. How do web pages work? Web pages are written in a markup language called HTML, so browsers display a web page by reading and interpreting its HTML. How do web pages work? The HTML file might link to other resources, like images, videos, as well as JavaScript and CSS (stylesheet) files, which the browser then also loads. How do web pages work? A web server is a program running on a computer that delivers web pages in response to requests. It either stores or generates the web page returned.  How do web pages work? cs193x.stanford.edu 1. You type in a URL, which is the address of the HTML file on the internet. How do web pages work? 2. The browser asks the web server that hosts the document to send that document. GET How do web pages work? 3. The web server responds to the browser with HTML file that was requested. OK  How do web pages work? 4. The browser reads the HTML, sees the embedded resources and asks the server for GET OK those as well.... GET OK How do web pages work? 5. The web page is loaded when all the resources are fetched and displayed. cs193x.stanford.edu What is the main problem in this client/server platform? URL/filename.html Internet Platforms Browser Windows Apache (PHP), Unix Edge, iOS Microsoft IIS,.NET Cisco Chrome, android Java Firefox Client Server HTML is static, no dynamics Amazon.com1995 July 16th Link and information  Common-gateway interface The client can run c++/java program in the client. This program generates outputs as HTML format URL/filename.html Internet Platforms Browser Unix Windows Apache (PHP), Edge, Cisco iOS Microsoft IIS,.NET Chrome, Java android Firefox C++ Client Server The main problem, is we need proffessional programmers HTML is static, no dynamics Active-pages PHP, ASP,.NET, JSP Easy to connect to Data Management and Storage IBM DB2 Oracle SQL Server Sybase MySQL Apache Hadoop  Progress in the client JavaScript, programming in client Jquery, AJAX, Angular,..., etc URL/filename.html Internet Platforms Browser Unix Windows Apache (PHP), Edge, Cisco iOS Microsoft IIS,.NET Chrome, Java android Firefox C++ Client Server HTML is static, no dynamics The current technology: Web service/microservice Web services refer to a set of loosely coupled software components that exchange information with each other using universal web communication standards and languages. They can exchange information between two different systems regardless of the operating systems or programming languages on which the systems are based. They can be used to build open standard web-based applications linking systems of two different organizations, and they can also be used to create applications that link disparate systems within a single company. Different applications can use web services to communicate with each other in a standard way without time-consuming custom coding. Server XML Cloud caller: HTML Python Web service smartphone XML  The collection of web services that are used to build a firm’s software systems constitutes what is known as a service-oriented architecture. A service oriented architecture (SOA) is set of self-contained services that communicate with each other to create a working software application. Business tasks are accomplished by executing a series of these services. Software developers reuse these services in other combinations to assemble other applications as needed. Large companies can have 1000s of microservices Microservice in reality Homework summarize this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZ3wIuvmHeM Server Virtualization Read more VMware  Cloud computing: windows-365 https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-365 (summarize this as a homework) Cloud computing: google Co-lab You can run your code in google computers  Cloud computing characteristics Cloud Computing Provides On-Demand Self-Service Cloud Computing Encompasses the Characteristics of Grid Computing Cloud Computing Encompasses the Characteristics of Utility Computing Cloud Computing Uses Broad Network Access The cloud provider’s computing resources are available over a network, accessed with a web browser, and they are configured so that they can be used with any computing device. Cloud Computing Pools Computing Resources Cloud Computing Often Occurs on Virtualized Servers Software-as-a-Service With the software-as-a-service (SaaS) delivery model, cloud computing vendors provide software that is specific to their customers’ requirements. SaaS is the most widely used service model, and it provides a broad range of software applications. SaaS providers typically charge their customers a monthly or yearly subscription fee. In the platform-as-a-service (PaaS) model, customers rent servers, operating systems, storage, a database, software development technologies such as Java and.NET, and network capacity over the Internet. The PaaS model allows the customer to both run existing applications and to develop and test new applications. With the infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) model, cloud computing providers offer remotely accessible servers, networks, and storage capacity. They supply these resources on demand from their large resource pools, which are located in their data centres.