Teaching in Multicultural School Setting Lecture Notes PDF

Ministry of Education Teaching in Multicultural School Setting December 2013 Addis Ababa i  Ministry of Education Module Title: Teaching in Multicultural Context Prepared by: Mekelle University...

Ministry of Education Teaching in Multicultural School Setting December 2013 Addis Ababa i  Ministry of Education Module Title: Teaching in Multicultural Context Prepared by: Mekelle University Module Writers: Tesfay Naizgi & Goitom Tegegn Technical Advisor: PRIN International Consultancy & Research Services PLC ii  Module Icons This tells you there is an introduction to the module, unit and section.  This tells you there is a question to answer or think about in the text. This tells you there is an activity to do. This tells you to note and remember an important point. This tells you there is a checklist of the main points. This tells you there is a self-test for you to do This tells you there is written assignment. This tells you there is a radio program support. This tells you that these are the answers to the activities and self-test questions. iii Contents UNIT ONE: THE NATURE AND GOALS OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION..................2 1.1. Concept of Multicultural Education.....................................................................................2 1.1.1. Defining Culture............................................................................................................3 1.1.2. Defining Multicultural Education..................................................................................4 1.2. Goals of Multicultural Education.........................................................................................7 1.3. Dimensions of multicultural education...............................................................................11 1.3.1. Content Integration......................................................................................................12 1.3.2. Knowledge Construction Process................................................................................14 1.3.3. Equity Pedagogy..........................................................................................................17 1.3.4. Prejudice Reduction.....................................................................................................19 1.3.5. An Empowering school Culture..................................................................................19 1.4. Approaches to Multicultural Education..............................................................................21 1.4.1. Teaching the Culturally Different approach................................................................21 1.4.2. Human Relations approach..........................................................................................21 1.4.3. The single group Studies approach..............................................................................21 1.4.4. The Multicultural Education approach........................................................................21 1.4.5. Social Reconstruction’s approach................................................................................21 UNIT TWO: DIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES OF MINORITIES IN MULTICULTURAL SCHOOL SETTING...................................................................................25 2.1. Major Forms of Diversity...................................................................................................25 2.1.1. Ethnicity.......................................................................................................................27 2.1.2. Gender..........................................................................................................................29 2.1.3. Social class...................................................................................................................29 2.1.4. Religion........................................................................................................................30 2.1.5. Disability......................................................................................................................30 2.2. The Social Construction of Identities.................................................................................31 2.3. Stereotypes and prejudices.................................................................................................32 2.4. Ethnocentrism.....................................................................................................................36 2.5. Discrimination in Schools...................................................................................................37 iv  2.6. Strategies for tackling racism, sexism and other problems................................................42 UNIT THREE: TEACHING STRATEGIES IN MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT....................49 3.1. Teaching in a multicultural perspective: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy.......................49 3.2. Cultural Diversity and its Influence on Teaching and Learning.........................................53 3.3. Strategies for teaching and Learning in Diverse Setting....................................................56 3.4. Managing Diversity in the Classroom................................................................................58 3.5. Assessment in Multicultural Setting...................................................................................60 3.6. Characteristics of Effective Teachers in multicultural settings..........................................61 UNIT FOUR: CURRICULUM IN MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT.........................................66 4.1. Fundamental Values and characteristics of Culturally Relevant Curriculum....................66 4.2. Levels of integrating multicultural contents.......................................................................67 4.2.1. Contributions approach................................................................................................68 4.2.2. Additive approach........................................................................................................68 4.2.3. Transformative approach.............................................................................................69 4.2.4. Social action approach.................................................................................................70 4.3. Selecting and Evaluating Multicultural Materials..............................................................71 4.4. The Hidden Curriculum in Multicultural context...............................................................74 UNIT FIVE: CREATING A MULTICULTURAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT.......................80 5.1. Characteristics of inclusive educational environment........................................................83 5.2. Strategies for Promoting Diversity in the Institutional Environment.................................84 5.3. Promoting Positive self-esteem and cultural identities.......................................................85 5.4. Multicultural efforts in the classroom.................................................................................86 5.4.1. Extracurricular Activities.............................................................................................88 5.4.2. Parental and Community Involvement........................................................................88 v  MODULE INTRODUCTION This module is prepared for the course Teaching in Multicultural School Setting. This course is intended to equip learners with competencies required to teach in settings characterized by ethnic, linguistic, social class, religious, gender and many other markers of diversity. Taking democracy, social justice and equity as cross cutting themes it strives to build the capacity to inculcate mutual respect and tolerance among the learners. In so doing it treats topics such as the concept of multicultural education; problems faced minorities such as stereotypes and prejudices, discrimination, racism, sexism, ethnocentrism in educational practices; teaching, curriculum, and the school environment in multicultural settings. In addition it also treats diversity issues in Ethiopian secondary schools. OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE Upon completion of this course the student will be able to:  Understand the concept of multicultural education  Understand diversity issues in schools and the problems related to diversity  Develop competencies in teaching (planning, facilitating, managing, assessing) in multicultural environment  Exhibit skills of selecting, using and evaluating curriculum materials  Analyze mechanisms of promoting diversity in the institutional environment  Develop positive attitudes towards diversity in line with the democratic ideals of social justice and equity  Analyze multicultural issues in the Ethiopian secondary school context. 1  UNIT ONE: THE NATURE AND GOALS OF MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION Introduction Dear learner, I am very much happy to say you welcome to the first unit of the module. In this unit four major elements are briefly discussed. These are; the concept of multicultural education, Goals of multicultural education, Dimensions of multicultural education and Approaches in multicultural education. As you may know, multicultural education is a global issue. It is difficult or may be impossible to find a country where all its students are from the same cultural background and ethnic group. For example, our country, Ethiopia, is composed of more than 80 nations and nationalities. Thus, as a teacher, you have to know that your students have differences in many terms such as: culture, ethnicity, economy, gender and others. So, this first unit will help you to get adequate knowledge about the nature and goals of multicultural education. Read carefully and understand the unit and do all the activities before you proceed to the second unit. I wish you a nice study time. Unit Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to:  Explain the concept of multicultural education  List down the goals of multicultural education  Analyze the dimensions of multicultural education  Explore the different approaches of multicultural education 1.1. Concept of Multicultural Education Overview Multiculturalism as a concept is a 20th century phenomena. This section will acquaint you with some definitions and concepts of multicultural education. Before you read the section try to define multiculturalism from your own experience and understanding. I am sure you know the words “multi” and “culture” and try to understand what you get by combining these words. 2 that comes to your mind when you read the phrase multiculturalism? Merge some of the content to Defining Multicultural Education 1.1.1. Defining Culture Dear learner, what do you think are the main elements in defining culture? Broadly speaking, culture is the system of shared beliefs, values. customs, behaviors technologies and products that a society holds, follows, uses and produces to live in its environment, and passes on from generation to generation. ? Dear learner, what are the shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors of your society or the society in which you are working? Elements of Culture Culture can be characterized by the following four elements. Cultural traits- how the group communicates symbolically through its products rituals, laws social structures, economic systems, etc. Cultural patterns- wider, interrelated patterns of behavior and interaction in which cultural traits may take on different meanings. An example is the pattern of grieving, which may involve such as traits as certain behaviors, dress, foods eaten and not eaten, ways of communicating and others. Transmission of knowledge- how the group teaches it’s young culturally approved and valued ways of behaving, thinking and perceiving. This is a key factor in the continuation of culture, for it gives cultural shape and form to human activity. The simplest activity is the learning of language. Societal structures and processes- how a group regulates, orders and limits group actions to maintain group cohesion and function. Societies represent culture in action, the everyday application of a group through the group’s institutions, systems and norms. These can include family structures, educational processes and institutions, how a society manages the health, activities of discourses of its members, how status is defined, legal and economic systems, who can marry whom, age groups and a host of other factors. 3 Group cohesion relies on the transmission and assimilation of knowledge of social structures and processes, and of the norms and expectations that underlie them. The process by which the individual is acculturated (learns the patterns of his/her culture) is also called socialization. Socialization is largely carried out by the family, upon whom the child models much of its adult’s behavior, but it also occurs as an effect of the individual’s wider social interactions. Socialization ensures the individual’s acceptance in the group and conformity to certain social expectations, which in turn ensures that social systems and norms are maintained. ? Dear learner, did you understand the above discussions? If not, read it again and give your example for each of the elements. 1.1.2. Defining Multicultural Education Since its earliest conceptualization in the 1960s, multicultural education has evolved both in theory and practice. It is rare that any two classroom teachers or education scholars will share the same definition for multicultural education. As with any dialogue on education, individuals tend to mold concepts to fit their particular contexts and disciplines. Therefore, we should expect that they will use different points of reference in discussing ethnic diversity and cultural pluralism. Yet, when considerations are made for these differences, a consensus on the substantive components of multicultural education quickly emerges. The definitions of multicultural education vary. Some definitions rely on the cultural characteristics of diverse groups, while others emphasize social problems (particularly those associated with oppression), political power, and the reallocation of economic resources. Some restrict their focus to people of color, while others include all major groups that are different in any way from mainstream cultures. Other definitions limit multicultural education to characteristics of local schools, and still others provide directions for school reform in all settings regardless of their characteristics. The goals of these diverse types of multicultural education range from bringing more information about various groups to textbooks, to combating racism, to restructuring the entire school enterprise and reforming society to make schools more culturally fair, accepting, and balanced. For this reason, the field of multicultural education is referred to interchangeably as multicultural education, education that is multicultural and antiracist education. The following are the most frequently used definitions of multicultural education: 4  An idea, an educational reform movement, and a process intended to change the structure of educational institutions so that all students have an equal chance to achieve academic success  A philosophy that stresses the importance, legitimacy, and vitality of ethnic and cultural diversity in shaping the lives of individuals, groups, and nations  A reform movement that changes all components of the educational enterprise, including its underlying values, procedural rules, curricula, instructional materials, organizational structure, and governance policies to reflect cultural pluralism  An ongoing process that requires long term investments of time and effort as well as carefully planned and monitored actions (Banks & Banks, 1993).  Institutionalizing a philosophy of cultural pluralism within the educational system that is grounded in principles of equality, mutual respect, acceptance and understanding, and moral commitment to social justice (Baptiste, 1979)  An education free of inherited biases, with freedom to explore other perspectives and cultures, inspired by the goal of making children sensitive to the plurality of the ways of life, different modes of analyzing experiences and ideas, and ways of looking at history found throughout the world (Parekh, 1986, pp. 2627)  A humanistic concept based on the strength of diversity, human rights, social justice, and alternative lifestyles for all people, it is necessary for a quality education and includes all efforts to make the full range of cultures available to students; it views a culturally pluralistic society as a positive force and welcomes differences as vehicles for better understanding the global society (ASCD Multicultural Education Commission, in Grant, 1977b, p. 3)  An approach to teaching and learning based upon democratic values that foster cultural pluralism; in its most comprehensive form, it is a commitment to achieving educational equality, developing curricula that builds understanding about ethnic groups, and combating oppressive practices (Bennett, 1990)  A type of education that is concerned with various groups in American society that are victims of discrimination and assaults because of their unique cultural characteristics 5  (ethnic, racial, linguistic, gender, etc.); it includes studying such key concepts as prejudice, identity, conflicts, and alienation, and modifying school practices and policies to reflect an appreciation for ethnic diversity in the United States (Banks, 1977)  Acquiring knowledge about various groups and organizations that oppose oppression and exploitation by studying the artifacts and ideas that emanate from their efforts (Sizemore, 1981)  Policies and practices that show respect for cultural diversity through educational philosophy, staffing composition and hierarchy, instructional materials, curricula, and evaluation procedures (Frazier, 1977; Grant, 1977)  Comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students that challenges all forms of discrimination, permeates instruction and interpersonal relations in the classroom, and advances the democratic principles of social justice (Nieto, 1992) Activity Before we explore these areas further, you might like to examine the above definitions, identify commonalities and differences, and then write out your own brief response to the question 'What is multicultural Education? These various definitions contain several points in common. Advocates agree that the content of multicultural education programs should include ethnic identities, cultural pluralism, unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, and other sociopolitical problems stemming from long histories of oppression. They believe that, at best, multicultural education is a philosophy, a methodology for educational reform, and a set of specific content areas within instructional programs. Multicultural education means learning about, preparing for, and celebrating cultural diversity, or learning to be bicultural. And it requires changes in school programs, policies, and practices. Multiculturalists explicitly value diversity and agree that the specific content, structures, and practices employed in achieving multicultural education will differ depending on the setting. Therefore, it is useful for educators to develop their own definitions of multicultural education, within the general boundaries outlined above, to fit their specific needs, rather than imposing a universal structure to implement multicultural education. 6 Multiculturalists also agree that multicultural education has implications for decision-making that will affect operations at all levels of education, including instruction, administration, governance, counseling, program planning, performance appraisal, and school climate. Thus, everyone involved must play an active role in implementing multicultural education. Promoting diversity means acknowledging diversity, incorporating diversity into all levels, and demonstrating pride in cultural pluralism along with a sincere belief that diversity is desirable. The actions taken in schools to adopt multicultural education should reflect the race, language, ethnicity, habits, and customs of ethnic groups throughout the global community. In order to promote a comprehensive understanding of cultural groups, we must use a variety of methods and a composite of various areas of scholarship, including the humanities, arts, social sciences, history, politics, and sciences. To implement multicultural education fully, fundamental changes will need to be made in the conception, organization, and execution of the educational process. These changes require modifications in an educational system that has been governed with a mono- cultural orientation based on Eurocentric, middle class cultural norms. Thus, implied in the definitions given above is another concept that finds general agreement among multiculturalists: multiculturalism requires simultaneous changes on multiple levels of schooling. These changes must be deliberate, long-range, ongoing, and, most important, comprehensive. 1.2. Goals of Multicultural Education The underlying goal of multicultural education is to effect social change. The pathway toward this goal incorporates three strands of transformation: 1. The transformation of self 2. The transformation of schools and schooling; and 3. The transformation of society Each of the transformation is discussed below. 1. The Transformation of Self As an educator, I have a dual responsibility to engage to critical and continual process to examine how my socialization and biases inform my teaching and thus affect the educational experiences of my students. I have a responsibility to myself to examine the lenses through 7 which I understand the people ad happening around me. Only when I have a sense for how my own perceptions are developed in relation to my life experience will I begin to understand the world and effectively negative my relationships with the people around me. I also have a responsibility to my students to work toward eliminating my prejudices, examining who is (and is not) being reached by my teaching, and relearning constant process of self-examination and transformation. 2. The Transformation of Schools and Schooling Multicultural education calls for a critical examination of all aspects of schooling. Aspects of multicultural school transformation include the following: A. Student-centered pedagogy o The experience of student must be brought to the fore in the classroom, making learning active, interactive, relevant, and engaging. o Traditional teaching approaches and pedagogical models must be deconstructed to examine how they contribute and support institutional systems of oppression. o Known oppressive practices like tracking (even if informal) must be exposed and critically examined. o All aspects of teaching and learning in schools must be refocused on, and rededicated to, the students them themselves instead of standardized test scores and school ranking. o Emphasis should be placed on critical thinking, learning skills, and deep social awareness as well as facts and figures. o Pedagogy must provide all students with the opportunity to reach their potential as learners. B. Multicultural curriculum o All curricula must be analyzed for accuracy and completeness. o All subjects must be presented from diverse perspective – this is related to accuracy and completeness. o “Inclusive curriculum” also means including the voices of the student in the classroom. 8  o Concepts such as “the canon” and “classic literature” must be interrogated, again with idea of accuracy and completeness, to debunk perceptions such as that the only “great literature” came from the U.S and Great Britain. C. Inclusive educational media and materials o Educational material should be inclusive of diverse voice and perspectives. o Students must be encouraged to think critically about materials and media: whose voices are they hearing? Whose voices are they not hearing? Why did that company produce that film? What is the bias this author may bring to her or his writing? D. Supportive school and classroom climate o Teachers must be better prepared to foster a positive classroom climate for all students. o Overall school cultures must be examined closely to determine how they might be cycling and supporting oppressive societal conditions. o Administrative hierarchies in schools must be examined to assess whether they produce positive teaching environments for all teachers. E. Continual evaluation and assessment o Educators and educator and education researchers must continue to examine he emphasis on standardized test scores and develop more just alternatives for measuring student “achievement, ” “ ability,” or “potential.” o Continuing evaluation must be in place to measure the success of new and existing programs meant to provide more opportunities to groups traditionally and presently underrepresented I colleges and universities. 3. The Transformation of Society Ultimately the goal of multicultural education is to contribute to the transformation of society and to the application and maintenance of social justice and equity. This stands to reason, as the transformation of schools necessarily transforms a society that puts so much stock in educational attainment, degrees, and test scores. In fact, it is particularly this competitive, market-centric 9 hegemony underlying the dominant mentality of the United States (and increasingly, with the “help” of the world) that multicultural education aims to challenge, shake, expose and critique. This is precisely the reason that it is not enough to continue working within an ailing, oppressive, and outdated system to make changes, when the problems in education are themselves symptoms of a system that continues to be controlled by the economic elite. One does not need to study education too closely to recognize that schools consistently provide continuing privilege to the privileged and continuing struggle for the struggling with very little hope of upward mobility. “Informal” tracking, standardized testing, discrepancies in the quality of schools within and across regions , and other practices remain from the industrial-age model of schools. Only the terminology has changed – and the practices are not quite as overt. Educators, educational theorists, researchers, activists, and everyone else must continue to practice and apply multicultural teaching and learning principles both inside and out of the classroom. We must not allow the knowledge that the vast majority of schools are well- intentioned lead us to assume that our schools are immune to the oppression and inequity of society. We must ask the unquestionable. We must explore and deconstruct structures of power and privileged at maintain the status quo. In a sense, multicultural education uses the transformation of self and school as a metaphor and point of departure for the transformation of society. Ultimately, social justice and equity in schools can and should, mean social justice and equity in society. Only then will the purpose of multicultural education be fully achieved. Some of the purposes of multicultural education enable a person to develop the following perspectives: 1. A good self-concept and self-understanding 2. Sensitivity to and understanding of others, including cultural groups in the world 3. The ability to perceive and understand multiple , sometimes conflicting , cultural and national interpretations of and perspectives on events, values and behavior 4. The ability to make decisions and take effective action based on multi-cultural analysis and synthesis 5. Open minds when addressing issues etc. 10  Activity 1 1. Justify whether the given purpose of multi-cultural education are achievable or not. 2. Elaborate each purpose of multi-cultural education in the light of the Ethiopian context. 3. Compare and contrast the strands of transformation as a way to set multicultural education goal setting? 1.3. Dimensions of multicultural education Dear leaner In the previous two sections of the unit, you have been learning about the social categories and approaches o multicultural education. In this lesson you will study about its dimensions. Banks (1993) describes the dimensions of multicultural education in five overlapping areas in which researches and practitioner are involved. These dimensions are used widely by education systems to conceptualize and develop courses, programs, and projects in multicultural education. The five dimensions are: (1) content integration; (2) the knowledge construction process; (3) prejudice; (4) equity pedagogy; and (5) a empowering school culture and social structure. Although each dimension is conceptually distinct, in practice they overlap and interrelated. Learning Objectives At the end of this section, you should be able to:  Differentiate each of the five dimensions of multicultural education  Explain the applications of the dimensions in school and class room settings  Evaluate your school environment, curriculum, and classroom practice in terms of the dimensions of multicultural education.  Explain the contribution of multicultural education to quality of education.  Discuss the interrelationship of the dimensions of multicultural education. 11 1.3.1. Content Integration Any curriculum does have content which is instrumental for the attainment of the educational objectives. Activity Dear learners! Before you study content integration as one dimension of multi-cultural education, you need to clearly understand the meaning of contents. 1. How do you understand the meaning of curriculum content? 2. What is the role of curriculum content in the teaching learning process? Write down your ideas. Content refers to the concepts, facts, principles, rules, skills, attitudes, etc. Students learn in order to achieve the intended objectives. In regard to the dimensions of multicultural education, content integration deals with the extent to which teachers use examples and content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts, principles, generalizations, and cultural content into a subject area is logical and not contrived when this dimension is implemented properly. Activity 1. What specific ethnic and cultural contents can you think of that should be integrated into the primary objects can curriculum of your schools? Into which subjects can these contents be integrated? Write down your answers. More opportunities exist for the integration of ethnic and cultural content in some subject areas than in others. There are frequent and ample opportunities for teachers to use ethnic and cultural content to illustrate concepts, themes, and principles in the social studies, the language arts, and in music. Opportunities also exist to integrate multicultural content into math and science. However, they are less ample than they in social and the language arts. Content integration is frequently mistaken by school practitioners as comprising the whole of multicultural education, and is thus viewed as irrelevant to instruction in disciplines such as math and science. 12 To implement the process of multicultural curriculum reform, banks has outlined our successive levels of integration of ethnic content. These levels called approaches are: contribution approach, additive approach, transformation approach, and social action approach. The contribution approach focuses on heroes and heroines, holidays, and discrete cultural elements. When using the additive approach, teachers append ethnic content, themes, and perspectives to the curriculum without changing its basic structure. In the transformation approach, which is designed to help students learn how knowledge is constructed, issues, events, and themes from the perspective of various ethnic and transformation approach, students make decisions on important social issues and take action to help solve them. These approaches provide teachers with an easily infusible, curriculum-stepladder entry in to the ongoing process of multicultural education. These levels will be discussed further in unit three of this module under approaches of multiculturalism. Activity Identify at least five cultural issues from your locality that need to be addressed by the primary school curriculum. Indicate also the subjects and grade level in which it should be included. 1.3.2. Knowledge Construction Process It is a common phenomenon that students may have certain misconceptions about the world. We all did and still have certain misconceptions. For instance, we can remember the difficulty we did have to accept the reality that is the earth, and not the sun, that rotates. Students have many similar misconceptions. Before you go on reading these topic, read reflect on the following questions and if possible, discus with your friends. Activity 13   Why do students sometimes acquire misconceptions about the world, and how do such beliefs affect later learning.  What strategies can we use to encourage students to correct their misconceptions about the world? In the words, how can we promote conceptual change? How do we learn? Watching a young child grows from infancy to toddlerhood, we marvel at the amount of learning that has allowed her/him to understand her/his expanding environment. Those early years provide the basis for language, physical dexterity, social understanding, and emotional development that he/she will use for the rest of his/her life. What a vast amount of knowledge is acquired before she/he sets foot in school! This child taught herself/himself by gathering information and experiencing the world around her/him. Such learning exemplifies constructivism. Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs, and skills an individual brings to the experience of learning. It recognizes the construction of new understanding as a combination of prior learning, new information, and readiness to learn. Individuals make choices about what new ideas to accept and how to fit them in to their established views of the world. Activity 1. What specific knowledge, beliefs, and skills do you imagine students of your school would bring to the classroom that would help to enrich the teaching learning process? Please list them down. The knowledge construction process encompasses the procedures by which social, behavioral, and natural scientists create knowledge in their disciplines. A multicultural focus on knowledge construction includes discussion of the ways in which the implicit cultural assumption, frames of reference, perspectives, and biases within a knowledge construction process is an important part of multicultural teaching. Teachers help students to understand how knowledge is created and how it is influenced by factor of race, ethnicity, gender, and social class. Multicultural teaching involves not only infusing ethnic content into the school curriculum, but also changing the structure and organization of the school. It also includes changing the ways in 14 which teachers and students view and interact with knowledge, helping them to become knowledge producers, not merely the consumers of knowledge produced by others. The constructivist teachers set up problems and monitor students’ exploration, guide the direction of student inquiry and promote new patterns of thinking. They refer to raw data, primary sources, and interactive materials to provide experiences to their students rather than relying solely on another’s set of data. For teachers who have used only one printed text, a shift to other sources may take some adjustment. For example, rather than reading about a census, students examine and interpret census data. Or they may plan a mini-census, gather their own data, and interpret the results. Our students represent a rich array of different backgrounds and ways of thinking. Myths, taboos, and things we learn from our families, friends, and teachers- all are part of cultural influence. Content is embedded in culture and it is difficult to separate the two. When presented with information in the classroom that contradicts existing ideas, a student may try to accommodate both interpretations, rather than change deeply held beliefs. Unless the teacher realizes what views the student hold, classroom teaching can actually help students construct faulty ideas. Multicultural teaching and learning, paradigms, and concepts that exclude or distort the life experiences, histories and contributions of marginalized groups are challenged. Multicultural pedagogy seeks to re-conceptualize and expand the Western canon, to make more representative and inclusive of a nation’s diversity, and to shape the frames of references, perspectives, and concepts that make up school knowledge. The Western canon is a term used to denote a canon of books that has been the most significant in shaping Western culture. Although previously held in high regard, it has been the subject of increasing contention through the latter half of the 20th century. Multicultural feminists have developed a number of conceptualizations that are designed to help teachers acquire the information and skills needed to teach students how knowledge is constructed, how to identify the writer’s purposes and point of view, and how to formulate their own interpretations of reality. Tetreault (1993) describes a model for teaching content about women that are also designed to help students understand the nature of knowledge and how it is constructed. In this curriculum Model, the teacher moves from a male-defined curriculum to a 15 curriculum that is gender-balanced. The phases are as follows: contributions curriculum, bifocal curriculum, women’s curriculum, and gender-balanced curriculum. In the contributions curriculum, a male framework is used to insert women into the curriculum; the world is viewed through the eyes of women and men in the bifocal curriculum; subjects of primary importance to women are investigated in the women’s curriculum; and the gender-balanced curriculum investigates topics and concepts that are important to women but also considers how women and men relate to each other. Activity Imagine that you are a new teacher. You discover that your students have several misconceptions about the subject matter your students will be studying over the next few weeks. Describe three different strategies you might use to help your students correct these misconceptions. 1.3.3. Equity Pedagogy Activity Dear learners, you might have heard of the term prejudice in some way in your experience. 1. How do you understand the concept prejudice? Can you describe it in a sentence or two? Prejudice is a negative or hostile feeling or attitude toward a group or a person who belongs to a particular group because s/he is presumed to have the negative qualities ascribed to the group. Prejudice is a frame of mind or an attitude which prejudges a person or group without sufficient experience or evidence. Most often these prejudices can become commonly held beliefs which are usually used to justify acts of discrimination. Stereotypes emerge from the process of making metal plates for printing. When people are stereotyped, it means having a set image of that group of people which is then used to represent that particular group. A stereotype is an oversimplified 16 generalization about a particular group, which is usually negative and unfavorable, without sufficient basis. Activity How does prejudice develop? Does it have any societal basis? What kind of prejudice is manifested in your locality? Prejudice occurs when negative attitudes concerning a social group are extended toward an individual based upon that individual’s perceived membership in the group. Discrimination occurs when there is an action (based on the prejudice), which denies a person or group equality of treatment, and is rarely if ever based on facts or truths. Discrimination usually leads to the denial of certain rights for some groups of people. It may be expressed directly in discriminatory actions and oppressive behavior, or indirectly, where a neutral, or seemingly harmless, policy, rule or practice has a discriminatory effect against a certain group of people. Discrimination is structural and systemic, when it is embedded within organizational procedures as standard practice. Prejudices and stereotypes have been a common feature in human relationships. Members of ne group often attribute certain negative traits to other groups who are different. The differences may be in any of the following: race, skin color, physical appearance, gender, age, socio- economic class, ethnic origin, religion, language and other cultural or behavioral expressions, among others. These stereotypes and prejudices often exist in one’s environment when one is born, and are often reinforced as one grows up. Discrimination is therefore learned by young people through socialization and the environment around them, in the family, community, school and through the media, which can influence the development of negative attitudes and behaviors that depreciate the status and worth of discriminated groups. Translated into conduct and practices, such attitudes become the basis for discrimination, ethnocentrism, and racism, with all the effects of inter-cultural mistrust, domination, and conflict that accompany them. 17  Activity 1. What do you think would be the effects of prejudice: On the individual? On the society? And on the education? Prejudicial attitudes and beliefs undermine principles of social justice in a democracy. Prejudice in schools is especially troubling because schools are public places in which students learn to negotiate and construct knowledge of differences. When prejudicial beliefs go unexamined in schools, students are not given the opportunity to deconstruct prejudicial knowledge. The impact of prejudicial attitudes on students is wide ranging, spanning from lower school performance to poor physical and mental health. The reduction of prejudice is vital for equitable and vigorous learning environments that foster students’ academic, mental, and physical health. 1.3.4. Prejudice Reduction Dear Leaner! ? Stop for a moment and think about the two concepts of: “equity” and “pedagogy”. How do you understand them? What is meant equity? What do you remember from your earlier courses about pedagogy? How could there be equity in pedagogy? Equity refers to fairness. Equity in education refers to accessibility of education as well as provision of accessible curriculum to all students. Educational equity is very fundamental for all students since educational excellence is unattainable for any student when certain groups are denied a fair chance to receive the highest quality education. It is one thing to provide access to schools for students from diverse backgrounds; it is another to build a culture where they feel authentically included. It is yet another to ensure that they succeed. 1.3.5. An Empowering school Culture Activity 18 Equity Pedagogy emanates from the assumption that students in every classroom are different. What kind of differences can you think of that may exist among students in the classrooms of your schools? In what ways can the differences among students in a classroom affect their learning? Equity pedagogy exists when teachers modify their teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural, socioeconomic, and language groups. This includes using a variety of teaching styles and approaches that are consistent with the range of learning styles within various cultural and ethnic groups. It also includes using cooperative learning techniques in math and science instruction to enhance the academic achievement of the marginalized groups of students. Equity pedagogy rejects the cultural deprivation paradigm that was developed in the early 1960s. This paradigm posited that the socialization experiences in the home and community of low- income students prevented them from attaining the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed for academic success. Because the cultural practices of low-income students were viewed as inadequate and inferior, cultural deprivation theorists focused on changing student behavior so that it aligned more closely with mainstream school culture. Equity pedagogy assumes that students from diverse cultures and groups come to school with much strength. There are strong correlations between the different cultural characteristics and the learning styles of ethnic groups. Multicultural education endorses both as critical components of equity pedagogy for racially, ethnically, and culturally diverse students. Implementing them in practice requires building bridges among diverse cultures and school programs, policies, and practices, as well as transforming the culture of school to make it more reflective of the diversity that characterizes a society. Activity 1. What approaches can teachers use to address the differences among students in their classes so as to enhance their learning? 19 To resolve these cultural incompatibilities, they first have to specifically identified, and then strategies devised to overcome them. This is another area of development that is growing in multicultural education. Some significant progress is being made in identifying conflict points among different cultures, accompanied by general suggestions for how to resolve them within the context of classroom instruction. Much more development is needed in making these ideas more precise and practical for the various dimensions of teaching. 1.4. Approaches to Multicultural Education There are different teaching approaches in the system of multi-cultural education. Each teaching approach has a unique characteristic on its implementation. They are discussed below briefly. Try to understand these teaching approaches in terms of diversified instructional process. Sleeter (1996) has outlined five teaching approaches in Multi-cultural education. 1.4.1. Teaching the Culturally Different approach Advocates of the Teaching the Culturally Different approach attempt to raise the academic achievement of students of color through culturally relevant instruction. 1.4.2. Human Relations approach In the Human Relations approach students are taught about commonalties of all people through understanding their social and cultural differences but not their differences in institutional and economic power. 1.4.3. The single group Studies approach The single group Studies approach is about the histories and contemporary issues of oppression of people of color, women, low socioeconomic groups, and gays and lesbians. 1.4.4. The Multicultural Education approach The Multicultural Education approach promotes the transformation of the educational process to reflect the ideals of democracy in a pluralistic society. Students are taught content using instructional methods that value cultural knowledge and differences. 1.4.5. Social Reconstruction’s approach Educators who use the Social Reconstruction’s approach to multicultural education go a step further to teach students about oppression and discrimination. Students learn about their roles as social change agents so discrimination. Students learn about their roles as social change agents 20 so that they may participate in the generation of a more equitable society. Be aware that these categories overlap, and educators may use more than one approach simultaneously. Activity 6 What are the merits of using different teaching approaches in a classroom? Which one of the proposed teaching approaches is the best? Why? Dear learner, There are different approaches to multicultural education from different writers. What we have seen above is from Sleeter (1996). For better understanding, presented below are approaches given by Banks. 1. The contribution approach This approach reflected the least amount of involvement in multicultural education approaches. This is incorporative by selected books and activities that celebrated holidays, and special events from various cultures. For example, spending time reading about Dr. Martin Luther King in January is common practice that falls into this category. In this approach, cultural diverse books and issues are not specified as part of the curriculum. Activity Dear Learners on the bases of the above example, from our country perspective what else historical or cultural causes of making students study or reading assignment can you design for your class. (Hint: A reading passage in Amharic text book on “cultural process of weeding” during the month of January ‘Tir’ and the teacher gives students a home take assignment to further discover about the process from their localities. 2. The additive approach 21 In this approach content, concepts, themes, and perspective are added to the without changing its basic structure. This involves incorporating literature by and about people from diverse cultures into the mainstream curriculum without changing the curriculum. However, this approach does not necessarily transform thinking. Activity Dear learners, I am sure you are aware of the effect of globalization in becoming as additive culture to our indigenous life styles. Hence, can you mention some examples that can be considered the additive approach to the teaching and learning process of our curriculum? 3. The transformation approach This approach actually changes the structure of the curriculum and encourages students to view concepts, issues, themes, and problems from several ethnic perspectives and points of view. For example, a unit on thanksgiving would become an entire unit exploring cultural conflict. This type of instruction involves critical thinking and involves a consideration of diversity as a basic premise. 4. The social action approach This approach combines the transformation approach with activities to strive for social change. Students are not only instructed to understand and question social issues, but to also do something about important about it. Self Test 1. Which type of multicultural approach have you been delivering so far in your respective schools? Why? SUMMARY For teachers of young children to be able to respond appropriately to a child’s racial and ethnic identity, it is critical they have a clear understanding of the complex process of racial identity development in children, beginning in infancy. For this reason, in this unit the definitions and concept multicultural education is discussed in detail. 22 Multicultural education is a complex and multidimensional concept. James Banks has identified five interrelated and overlapping dimensions to describe the field's major components and to highlight important developments within the last two decades: 1) content integration, 2) the knowledge construction process, 3) prejudice reduction, 4) an equity pedagogy, and 5) an empowering school culture. According to James Banks the four approaches to multicultural education are: the contributions approach, the additive approach, the transformation approach, and the social action approach. References Banks, J.A. & Banks, C.A. (Ed). (2004). Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education. Second Ed. Banks, J.A. (1999). An introduction to multicultural education (2 nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Banks, James A. Transforming the Mainstream Curriculum. In Educating for Diversity Pages 4- 8 May 1994 | Volume 51 | Number 8 Banks, James. 1993. A. Multicultural Education: Historical Development, dimensions, and Practice. Review of Research in Education, vol.19, pp. 3-49. Banks, James A. Level of Content Integration Banks, James A. and Michelle Tucker. “Multiculturalism’s Five Dimensions.” NEA Today Online. Camicia, Steven P. Prejudice Reduction through Multicultural Education: Connecting Multiple Literatures. Social Studies Research and Practice Volume 2, Number 2, Summer 2007. www.socstrp.org Cumming-McCann,Allison. 2003. Multicultural Education Connecting Theory to Practice. In focus On Basics: Connecting Research and Practice. Volume 6, Issue B. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3935/is_200101/ai_n8948129/ Gay, Geneva. 1994. A Synthesis of Scholarship in Multicultural Education. NorthCentral Regional Educational Laboratory Moss, Glenda. 2001. Critical pedagogy: Translation for education that is multicultural. 23 Multicultural Education - History, The Dimensions of Multicultural Education, Evidence of the Effectiveness of Multicultural Education. http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2252/Multicultural-Education.html"> Richards, Heraldo V., Brown, F. & Forde, B. (2006) Addressing Diversity inSchools: Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems. 24  UNIT TWO: DIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES OF MINORITIES IN MULTICULTURAL SCHOOL SETTING Overview: Dearest learners welcome again to the second unit of the module. I am sure you will find this unit equally essential and instructive for your teaching material and activity design and implementation. Therefore, topics included in this unit will be major forms of diversity, social construction f identity, social and cultural prejudices and stereotypes and ethnocetricism. Furthermore, you will be equipped with tools, strategies and techniques that can guide you in handling discrimination and talking racism and sexism and other related issues. Unit Objectives:  At the end of the unit the student will be able to:  Describe the different forms of diversity in societies.  Explain the concepts of stereotypes, prejudices, ethnocentrism etc.  Analyze the educational problems faced by diverse social groups in a multicultural context  Analyze the impacts of racism, sexism, classism, extremism and the like on educational situations of minorities.  Discuss strategies for combating racism, sexism and other problems in educational institutions. 2.1. Major Forms of Diversity Every child comes to school with an ethnic identity whether these identifications are conscious or unconscious. This identification must be recognized and respected by the teacher. It must be the basis for the learning activities in the classroom. This recognition of individual ethnic identities is the beginning point; it is a connector of both the teacher to the student and the students to each other. It is the basic building block in the learning process, which requires knowing where the child is relative to him/herself and the content to be addressed. This ethnic identification is a continual point of focus throughout the education process and is the basis for developing the next level of identification, which is a national identification. 25 We live in a world with an abundant array of diversity. Diversity is evident in people, the environment, and all forms of life. Advancements in technology have made the world seem smaller and increased the interaction between people from different cultures. The world’s economy has become increasingly globalized, fueling the rapid expansion of immigration to industrialized countries over the last60 years. Today, it is not unusual to find classrooms where three or four different languages and cultures are represented. In order to educate the future generations of our society effectively, the education system must be successful teaching all children to communicate and interact with people from different backgrounds and with different abilities. In addition, if we are to maintain a country where social mobility and opportunity are viable possibilities, educators must find ways to offer an excellent education to all students regardless of their background. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss several issues related to educating children in a diverse society. Diversity is a fundamental aspect of our world and a defining characteristic of the field of special education. This chapter concerns the education of students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds who may or may not have disabilities that require special education services. For culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students, issues of diversity, difference, and disability can be quite complex and challenging for classroom teachers. In order to better discuss these challenges, specific terms common in discussions of diversity require explanation. A learning style refers to the way people learn new information. It includes how information is processed and how study habits differ. For example, some students prefer sit in the front of the class and listen intently to everything the teacher is saying; other students prefer it when teachers use graphs or visual representations of the material. The preferences are associated with which senses a learner uses when learning. Scholars have proposed that students use different perceptual strengths when learning (Kolb, 1984). As noted in Table below, these strengths can be auditory (hearing), visual, or kinesthetic (active)in nature. Research on learning styles began to expand in the early 1970s. Today many models and various measures of learning styles exist. It is not clear whether one’s learning style is flexible or fixed. However, many people are aware that they have preferences when it comes to the way they learn and study. 26 2.1.1. Ethnicity Race and ethnicity are often used interchangeably, but they are different. Ethnicity is defined by group membership based on genealogy, national origin, and ancestry. Ethnicity does not change, even though characteristics of a specific ethnic group’s culture may change. For example, in many instances, the label “Native ethnicity” includes numerous tribal groups whose lifestyles vary extensively. Race is a term that attempts to categorize human beings into distinct groups according to phenotypes or physical traits (e.g., skin color, eye shape). Throughout history, race has been used as a social, cultural, and biological construct to group people (Taylor &Whittaker, 2009). The concept of race has changed over time and continues to be difficult to define because our current knowledge of biological science does not support the idea that there are meaningful biological differences between races. Bird (1996) considers that “issues of ethnic diversity have important consequences for the design, content, delivery and assessment of programmes and modules”; but Modood & Acland (1998) suggest that “of all developments by higher education institutions to improve the experience of black and minority ethnic (BME) students, transformation of the curriculum remains the area of least achievement.” This is often because of a lack of confidence among UK academics (a group that remains predominantly white) about how to incorporate ethnic diversity into their teaching. Gordon (2007) reminds us that we all “have an obligation to educate ourselves about the world around us, about developments in our field, and most especially about people, events and ideas about which our class, race and/or social position would normally insulate us from knowing” to avoid the situation where BME students may feel their interests are 27 being marginalized. Gordon suggests that “we do not just teach the contents of a discipline, but we teach what counts as worthy intellectual exploration by inclusion and by omission”. Retention goes hand in hand with the widening participation agenda, and Tinto(2003) notes that “students are more likely to persist when they find themselves in settings that hold high expectations for their learning, provide needed academic and social support, and actively involve them with other students and faculty in learning”. Van Dyke (1998) also picks upon expectations, noting that if BME students believe that staff have lower expectations of them, they will find this demotivating, and will be unwilling to do their best as they feel that they are not going to obtain a mark that is commensurate with their efforts. This may become a vicious circle as their poorer performance serves to reinforce the stereotypes of lower expectations. Fair and non-discriminatory assessment methods and processes are a key area in the design of an inclusive learning environment to enhance the academic success of BME students. Van Dyke(1998) highlights a range of perceptions among black and minority ethnic students, for example, that a particular type of written and oral English plays an important part in the marks awarded, and that the criteria being applied to their work are discriminatory. She suggests that good marks in coursework among black and minority ethnic groups is often masked by poor exam performance (a form of assessment that is biased against those who lack preparation in exam techniques) and she recommends the use of a variety of assessment methods, an approach that is, of course, considered to be good general educational practice. In a continuation of the theme of transforming the curriculum, Warren(2004) advocates the use of a “critical pedagogy”, where the teacher “welcomes diverse perspectives without spotlighting individuals” and encourages “all students to reflect critically on their own cultural values and biases”, allowing students to "negotiate assessment tasks pertinent to their own cultural backgrounds”. Activity Dear students may you please group yourself into different groups with adequate emphasis to gender involvement and due attention for involving females to chair groups during the discussion session and present the reports refined? 28  Dear learners, the country constitution has clearly stated the human and democratic right and freedom of Ethiopian ethnicity to respect and protect unconditionally. How do you evaluate the provisional rights of ethnicity reflection in the curriculum guideline and implementation process? Briefly summarize your evaluation and discuss with your class mates. Ethnic and racial diversity is on the rise among children in American classrooms, yet preserves teachers continue to come primarily from White middle class areas, and tend not to be well prepared for teaching in ethnically and racially diverse settings(Castro, 2010). Research indicates that pre service teachers can grow in their level of interest in culturally sensitive pedagogy over time (Groulx & Silva, 2010) , and that more new teachers are interested in matters concerning racial justice in education than in the past (Castro, 2010). However, new education professionals tend to be over simplistic in their conceptions of diversity, overly reliant on their own cultural lens, and heavily influenced by past experiences (Castro, 2010; Groulx & Silva, 2010; Taylor, 2010). Perhaps even more disconcerting is the notion among some pre service teachers that establishing a diverse educational curriculum is not the responsibility of a teacher, but rather that of a community or a school in general (Silverman, 2010). These observations suggest the presence of a persistent cultural intelligence deficit among new teachers, despite the best efforts made in Teacher Education Program's (TEP) to instill an awareness of multiculturalism and diverse pedagogies. 2.1.2. Gender The concept gender has wider interpretations in our world. What is the difference between gender and sex? Sex refers to the biological difference between men and women where as gender refers to the socially constructed differences between men and women. In all societies, women and men play different roles, have different needs, and face different constraints. For example, in some countries child rearing, food preparation, and household maintenance are demarcated as responsibilities of women where as in others not. Gender responsibilities vary in the following aspects: 29 a) social and economic activities b) access to resources c) decision making authority Activity Dear learners, the dimension of gender is the most import concept to the development and civilized awareness of any society, hence education should be one major instrument to materialize. How do you describe our curriculum and educational system from gender as multicultural perspective? 2.1.3. Social class In every culture, subgroups may form. Subgroups can differ by any of the components of culture, including ethnicity, language, class, religion, and geography. These subgroups can be very different from each other, even though they share some traits and values. Often members of the dominant society or subgroup of a culture view their culture as correct and all others as incorrect or even inferior. Historically, the mainstream culture in the United States has been Western European, deriving from political, economic, and language systems in Great Britain (Taylor & Whittaker, 2009). The United States also has a history of limited full access to mainstream culture for those members of society who are not racially white or Caucasian. In this chapter, the term culturally diverse students will be used to refer to “students who may be distinguished [from the mainstream culture] by ethnicity, social class, and/or language” (Perez, 1998, p. 6). As such, this term may refer to students who are from racial/ethnic minority groups, students whose primary language is not English, and students who are from low-income or poor households. However, it is also important to remember that all students are culturally diverse regardless of their ethnicity, race, or socioeconomic status. We limit our definition along lines of ethnicity, social class, and race because of the historic and current marginalization these groups have experienced and how these experiences have resulted in inequitable schooling practices. 30 In the United States, CLD students are disproportionately overrepresented among poor and low- income households. Therefore, the relationship between culture and social class is relevant to discussions surrounding the education of CLD students. Often the terms social class and socioeconomic status (SES) are used interchangeably and refer to "distinctions not only in income but also in property ownership, occupation, education, personal and family life, and education of children” (Taylor, 1986, p. 22). Institutions, including schools, tend to adopt what are typically thought of as “middleclass "ideologies to guide practice. These ideologies are associated with the quality of life of society’s economically and socially privileged. Although these ideologies are not exclusively middle class, they are culturally influenced and may manifest in different ways for families from diverse backgrounds. Activity Based on the above reading on social class a one major form of diversity, what is your experience on the social classes of your students in your previous classes? 2.1.4. Religion In matters of religion, the 1994 Ethiopian education policy requires in Article 2.2.7 that schools should provide secular education in the country. This appears to be a policy of uniform treatment of religions across the board with no single religion being part of the school curriculum at the exclusion of others. On the other hand, however, the multicultural values such as respect, tolerance, equality, and conflict resolution and management, which are deemed important in the policy, can contribute to the promotion of coexistence among the followers of different religions in the country. Generally, the 1994 Education policy of Ethiopia addresses multicultural expectations and directives in education in terms of promoting tolerance, mutual understanding, peaceful conflict resolution and management, equality, justice, liberty, dignity, moral values, democratic culture, and respect for human rights. Activity What is your opinion on the diversity of religion in our curriculum and educational system? Take 31 one subject text book and evaluate based on the assumptions given above. 2.1.5. Disability The other important concept that should be considered in multicultural education is “disability.” This term has many definitions. The following definitions are taken from the internet:  Disability is the condition of being unable to perform as a consequence of physical or mental unfitness.  Disability is a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long- term adverse effect on a person’s ability to carry out day-to- day activities. E.g. hearing impairment, visual impairment, mobility impairment, etc. Group Activity: Dear students may you please group yourself into different groups with adequate emphasis to gender involvement and due attention for involving females to chair groups during the discussion session and present the reports refined to the class? Read the following scenarios identify possible barriers to learning and suggest possible strategies for support by the school or teacher Haile suffered from measles very badly as a small child, which has left him with both hearing and visual impairment. He has had special help through elementary and high school which has enabled him to cope with his disabilities. He cannot read printed materials easily but he can write and read Braille. Fantaye is an orphan and has two small children of her own. She has worked extremely hard to complete her education, supporting herself by growing and selling vegetables. Getachew has just been diagnosed as HIV positive. He is a friendly, outgoing young man who seems to be coping well. Aster has been on crutches following an accident when she was a small child. She has limited mobility from the waist down and relies on her mother for support. In school, she had supportive friends who looked after her Firew has epilepsy. When he reached adolescence, he began to have seizures more frequently. His doctor hopes that he will be better as he becomes more mature and that new medication will help him. Timkat finishes the work before everybody in the class. Her work is always excellent. She says 32 she is bored with the work because it is too easy. Tsega has language difficulties. She copes very well in her local language and was given language support by a family friend to help her achieve good results in her grade 10 exam. Her Amharic and her English are very limited. Cassie becomes angry very easily and he loses his temper and hits other students in the class when he finds the work difficult His new Maths teacher realises that he can only count up to 10 Metkes was involved in a car accident and is now in a wheelchair. She is good in all her subjects Tamiru is in Grade7. He is good at Mathematics, but he can hardly read the simplest material. Beletu finds it difficult to read the board when she is near the back of the class. Her work in all subjects is above average for the group. Solomon works at the same speed as everybody in the group and his written work is good. He never talks to anybody else in the group – he is always on his own. Self test A pedagogical sound educational system of a country has to consider the forms and pricincples of diversified cultural society under its curriculum. Hence, in a group or pair assess our curriculum if it qualifies inclusion of the major forms of diversity with examples. 2.2. The Social Construction of Identities Over the long history of our species, human beings have developed complex forms of identity, which makes it possible to interact and live together, says British Philosopher Kwame A. Appiah. Globalization has also seen new forms of differences amongst human beings generated all the time. Much before the 1960's there were many identities that did not exist that we see in society today, such as Scientologists, punks, hip hop and so forth. These different identities are important forms of cultural differences that have evolved in society during time. These identities also shape the lives of many people around the world. As human beings we develop different forms of social identities that makes it possible to live together. We further construct our identities to suit our ever-‐changing environments. Our social identifies change all the time, but they are not replaced with nothing, they are replaced with changed identities. For the purpose of my essay I would like to introduce to you how 'social identities' are socially constructed and the process through which it occurs. For a better understanding on this topic, I will further explain 33 concepts that are relevant to the construction of identities, and will introduce some key people who are academically valid social science figures in this subject field. By understanding that Social identity is constructed through socialization, I will hereby explain what this means. Socialization is a process by which adults or children learn certain types of behavior, roles and values. These behaviors are learnt from parents, friends, school and the environments humans engage in, to become functional members of society. These various groups, institutions and individuals can be referred to as the 'agents of socialization’. This learning process starts from childhood and continues to adulthood, and the process is ongoing. 2.3. Stereotypes and prejudices Racial discrimination and prejudices have been a constant battle our country has been dealing with for many years. Race affects nearly all aspects of life such as education (Parrillo, 1994) to workplace interactions (Horton and Thomas, 1995) to family experiences (Taylor, 1994) and even to how men and women interact (Aldridge 1990). Even now there are still separations between groups of people. I see this issue everyday on the University of Iowa campus. Culture shock is very much prevalent when students from all over with different experiences are placed in one general area to live. I have already encountered such shocking comments about race in discussion from other classes. I consider myself to be fairly open-minded and to have generally unprejudiced views of others. It makes me wonder where some of these people I am discussing issues with came from and what experiences and influences cause them to stereotype on other groups of people they have never encountered or know anything about the individuals. Although racism has steadily decreased over the past decade with the interventions of school programs to reduce prejudiced views, subtle racial comments and differences still occur all around us. What early influences establish prejudiced views and stereotyping among children? When humans are young we do not even think to judge one another based on the color of our skin or any other difference for that matter. We all have the similar attributes such as arms, legs, eyes or a nose which lets us know we are all alike. As we get older our perceptions of each other change and we form separate categories for some people; this shows these views must come from somewhere other than biologically what we are born with. This constant struggle make an equal and just world is still continuing to cause problems with racial issues. Such attempted 34 solutions as affirmative action (which instills racial quotas in education and work environments) are still statements of separation and differences among people. If we as a society working together to establish equality could understand where in our early lives we distinguish differences and why we do, we would be better, drastically subside the unfair treatment of others and abolish attitudes of judgment. 2.3.1. Evolution of Prejudice Bergen (2001) tried to answer the question on how prejudices among children begin and what causes these learned prejudices. He also describes the development of prejudice and the role of “us” verses “them” instead of the socially moral “me” verses “you”. The methods used were observations of peer groups of early aged children. They observed how children reacted to situations of identification while in the preschool setting. They also observed different children in the family primary group setting through parent modeling. The result of these observations describes children’s stages of prejudice. The environment at home develops biases through modeling of parental actions and words spoken. A child already forms the idea of group when they are born into the family. Modeling exerts more powerful effects on children below ages 7 to 8. At 2 years of age children can separate differences among gender, black and white, and can identify which identity they have. Prejudice is learned from family, peers and social environment; it is not instinctive. Prejudice is a series of stages such as: fear of strangers creating an out group or “them”, gender and racial awareness separating differences, identification with a group as “us verses “them”, identify with parents as what satisfies parents, rejection of outsiders, selective rejection as part of particular group so they are rejected, point of view on the world questioning morals, and choice to be or not to be prejudice and accept the roles (Bergen 2001). 2.3.2. Environment and Family One of the earliest stages of children’s interaction through environment and family directly influence their interactions and experiences daily with society. Children’s socialization occurs through family and environment contributions to instill important aspects of a child’s early interaction with others. Adaptive cultures surrounding a child can define goals, values, and attitudes which are combined with history and current demands in order to construct a child’s own beliefs during the socialization process. Families along with environment, then begin to 35 work together to establish a child’s experiences through interaction. The processes of racism and prejudice directly affect a child’s experiences; therefore a child socialization development of negative views is established by these influential contributions from family and environment together (Coll 2001). 2.3.3. Cultural Influences from Families A study examining the effects of interactions between children and their parents and significant others observed the parental influence of beliefs and values of different black, white, and Hispanic families and the differences that affect a child’s socialization experience. The researchers sought to understand how and under what conditions socialization occurs. Some of the findings drawn from this article were that parent expectations and encouragement strongly influence a child’s academic and social challenges. Family structures of blacks differ from whites or Hispanics in that, nearly 50% of young children have a married mother also they are three times more likely to live with a single mother. These less stable findings give a negative prospect on black families. Other findings were that most races had no difference on child’s adjustment to school, or number of areas in which a child received help. Evidence shows Hispanic and blacks share similar parenting styles and were actually more likely to stress the same skill development in preschoolers. Black children are most likely to watch educational TV, be near the top percent of their class, and black parents are most likely to visit with teachers. These cultural differences in families have strong affects on how children perform socially and academically (Coates and Wagenaar 1999). 2.3.4. Personal Names Encourage Racial Stereotypes In addition to other countries, it is important to look at other perspectives of derived stereotypes. Children age four and five were studied to determine if stereotypes and prejudiced views had developed under the basis of personal names. White children showed more race related stereotypical responses to personal names. White children associated more negative responses to African American personal names than to white names. This indicates that personal names might encourage children in stereotyping race through personal names (Daniel and Daniel 1998). 2.3.5. Education to Change Unawareness of Prejudice 36 Another study attempted to determine what actions educators need to take in order to insure an unbiased and an indiscriminate environment for children. The researcher also tried to find out what is necessary to suppress prejudices that children have already developed from home and other group environments outside the classroom. They interviewed preschool aged children and their views on certain topics such and people, and what is right and what is wrong. The children gave opinionated answers based on what they have learned from their life up until now. Some children were observed from a prejudiced setting and some from a learned unprejudiced setting. The results of the study described the bias gender remarks from unaware prejudiced children, such as “Girls shouldn’t do that” based on standards set by family and peers about female and male gender roles. Also children considered others not like them to be “wrong or bad”. The children observed through learned unprejudiced environment could accept people for who they were and not what they were “supposed” to be, such as a girl drew herself as a surgeon but wearing a pink dress and a crown showing an unbiased stereotypical view of a surgeon. These results showed that educators need to involve the family in all aspects of anti-prejudiced education. Educators also need to incorporate new techniques to stimulate knowledge of cultural differences, balance student’s values outside their comfort area, and develop self-awareness in a proper moral society (Sparks 1993). 2.3.6. Programs Reducing Prejudice in Schools Studies have shown that education plays an important role in a child’s construction of prejudiced views. Many researchers still hold to the theory that prejudiced in learned from parents and peers while other suggest influences of people whom children seek approval from contribute to a child’s adopted stereotypical attitudes (Stephan, 1999). These understandings are necessary if classroom programs are going to attempt to change and send positive messages of respect of all people. Three studies were conducted; the first evaluated a teacher’s encouragement of students to pay attention to individualized information about members of groups rather than racial qualities. The program lowered prejudice in high-prejudice students but already low prejudiced students stayed at about the same level. The second study aimed at answering the question if talking about race leads to prejudice or tolerance and peers to influence each-other. Each low prejudiced student was paired with a high prejudiced student. The results of this evaluation of peer influences was, the low prejudiced students had more negative views of whites and did not make more positive or fewer statements about minorities. Also the low students were not 37 influenced by the high students. As the discussion progressed the two extreme students began to have similar comments. The third study focused on how students would react to others who are not their friends, making racial comments. The study concluded that 60% of the students responded to remarks as unusual, they then questioned to meaning or intent of the racial remark and intervened at 80% after the second remark. White males intervened at a lower level than white females, and minority students had a stronger tendency to reply. These studies all focused on interventions to reduce prejudice and to see what direction society needs to take in order to increase respect and tolerance among all people (Aboud and Fenwick 1999). 2.4. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and sub-divisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. "Ethnocentrism" is a commonly used word in circles where ethnicity, inter-ethnic relations, and similar social issues are of concern. The usual definition of the term is "thinking one's own group's ways are superior to others" or "judging other groups as inferior to one's own". "Ethnic" refers to cultural heritage, and "centrism" refers to the central starting point... so "ethnocentrism" basically refers to judging other groups from our own cultural point of view. But even this does not address the underlying issue of why people do this. Most people, thinking of the shallow definition, believe that they are not ethnocentric, but are rather "open minded" and "tolerant." However, as explained below, everyone is ethnocentric, and there is no way not to be ethnocentric... it cannot be avoided, nor can it be willed away by a positive or well-meaning attitude. To address the deeper issues involved in ethnocentrism calls for a more explicit definition. In this sense, ethnocentrism can be defined as: making false assumptions about others' ways based on our own limited experience. The key word is assumptions, because we are not even aware that we are being ethnocentric... we don't understand that we don't understand. One example of ethnocentrism is seen in the above comments on the Inuit snowshoe race. I assumed that I had "lost" the race, but it turns out the Inuit saw the same situation very 38 differently than I did. Westerners have a binary conflict view of life (right or wrong, liberal versus conservative, etc.), and I had imposed my "win or lose" perspective of life on the situation. As a result, I did not understand how they experience life, that trying is a basic element of life. This did not necessarily involve thinking that my ways were superior, but rather that I assumed my experience was operational in another group's circumstances. There are many, many examples of such differences in meanings that make life experience so unique for all the human groups around the world. For example, English has tenses built into our verb forms, so we automatically think in terms of time (being "punctual," "time is money," "make the time," etc.). But Algonquian Indian languages do not have tenses (not that they cannot express time if they wish), but rather have "animate" and "inanimate" verb forms, so they automatically think in terms of whether things around them have a life essence or not. So when Chippewa Indians do not show up for a medical appointment, Anglo health care workers may explain this as being "present oriented," since we normally cannot think except in terms of time frames. But this is the essence of ethnocentrism, since we may be imposing a time frame where none exists. The assumptions we make about others' experience can involve false negative judgments, reflected in the common definition of ethnocentrism. For example, Anglos may observe Cree Indians sitting around a camp not doing obvious work that is needed and see Crees as "lazy". Westerners generally value "being busy" (industriousness), and so may not appreciate the Cree capacity to relax and not be compelled to pursue some activities of a temporary nature... nor realize how much effort is put into other activities like hunting. Assumptions can also reflect false positive attitudes about others' ways. For example, we in urban industrial society frequently think of Cree Indians as being "free of the stresses of modern society," but this view fails to recognize that there are many stresses in their way of life, including the threat of starvation if injured while checking a trap line a hundred miles from base camp or when game cycles hit low ebbs. False positive assumptions are just as misleading as false negative assumptions. Activity 39 It’s evident that some students seem to argue with their class mates on the superior of their ethnicity or culture over others. However, this section has a clear guide on similar issue. From your local schools experience perspective, how do you think a teacher can tackle such behaviors in a classroom? 2.5. Discrimination in Schools Discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfairly or badly in certain respects. Not all discrimination is against the law, even if it is unfair. In Queensland the Act determines what kind of discrimination is unlawful by identifying particular attributes and areas. Discrimination happens because people have stereotypical or prejudiced ideas or beliefs about other people because they happen to belong to a particular group of people or because they have certain personal characteristics or attributes. This kind of direct discrimination is often the result of failing to treat each person as an individual regardless of their sex, age, race etc. Discrimination can also happen in a more indirect way. In some cases treating everybody the same can be unfair because it disadvantages a whole group of people. For example, requiring all enrolment applicants for a hospitality course to meet minimum height requirements may disadvantage women or people of particular ethnic origin. Unless such a rule is necessary or reasonable in all the relevant circumstances it will be indirect discrimination and against the law. Indirect discrimination is not usually intentional but is often the result of forgetting to think about the impact of rules and requirements on different people. Direct discrimination This occurs when one person treats another person less favorably than they would another because of a protected characteristic. e.g. an HEI or students’ union decides not to interview a Muslim applicant for a job because they assume, on the basis of his religion, that he will not be prepared to work in a bar. 40 e.g. an HEI does not recruit an older member of staff to a frontline student services role on the basis that they are “too old to identify with students”. The HEI is unlikely to be able to justify this. Discrimination based on association is also illegal e.g. a student, whose child has attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is refused access to a graduation ceremony because of fears about the child’s behavior; e.g. an employee is overlooked for promotion because other partner has undergone gender reassignment. e.g. An employer allows all staff with children to leave work early one afternoon before Christmas to attend their children’s school play or show. They assume that an employee with a disabled child will not need this time off so do not give them the same concession. This is likely to be direct discrimination because of disability on the basis of the employee’s association with their disabled child. Discrimination based on perception is unlawful e.g. a member of staff refuses to work with a student because they believe that the student is gay, irrespective of whether the student is gay or not. Combined discrimination claims The Equality act allows people to bring a claim of direct discrimination because of a combination of two protected characteristics (not including marriage and civil partnership, and pregnancy and maternity). e.g. a black female member of staff could bring a claim for combined race and sex discrimination, as well as separate claims. On 24 March 2011 the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced that this provision would be scrapped. Indirect discrimination Indirect discrimination occurs when a provision, criterion or practice appears neutral, but its impact particularly disadvantages people with a protected characteristic, unless this can be 41 justified as a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim. Indirect discrimination now extends to all the protected characteristics except pregnancy and maternity. e.g. an employer who requires staff to commit to working from 8 pm to 11 pm every evening indirectly discriminates against women, who are more likely to be primary carers of children. e.g. An employer insists that all employees have to be in the office by 9am or face disciplinary action. An employee has a mobility impairment that makes travelling in the rush hour difficult. Unless the employer can objectively justify the requirement to be in at that time, this may be discrimination arising from disability, because the disabled person would be treated unfavourably (being disciplined) for something connected to their disability (the inability to travel in the rush hour).This may also be a failure to make reasonable adjustments. Harassment The quality act outlines three types of harassment: unwanted conduct that has the purpose or effect of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for the complainant, or violating the complainant’s dignity (this applies to all the protected characteristics apart from pregnancy and maternity, and marriage and civil partnership) unwanted conduct of a sexual nature (sexual harassment) treating a person less favorably than another person because they have either submitted to, or did not submit to, sexual harassment or harassment related to sex or gender reassignment. e.g. a member of staff makes comments about a student sexuality in a way that makes the student feel uncomfortable. The perceptions of the recipient are very important and harassment may be deemed to have occurred even if the intention was not present, but the recipient felt that they were being harassed. The employer is liable in the case of harassment of its employees by third parties, such as maintenance contractors, over whom the employer does not have direct control, unless the 42 employer has taken reasonable steps to prevent the third party from doing so. This only applies if the employer knows that the employee has been harassed on at least two previous occasions. e.g. if the HEI fails to take action when a female member of staff complains of repeated comments and unwanted jokes on the basis of their sex, the employer would be liable unless it had taken reasonable steps to prevent the contractors from doing so. Victimization takes place where one person treats another less favorably because he or she has asserted their legal rights in line with the Act or helped someone else to do so. e.g. a student alleges that they have encountered racism from a tutor, and as a result they are ignor