AFS 161 Ethics in Traditional African Society Lecture Notes PDF

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES CENTRE FOR CULTURAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES (CeCAST) (SOCIAL SCIENCES, LLB, KSB & OBUASI) Course Code and Title: (AFS 161) Ethics in Traditional African Society Introduction A cursory look at Culture. A culture...

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES CENTRE FOR CULTURAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES (CeCAST) (SOCIAL SCIENCES, LLB, KSB & OBUASI) Course Code and Title: (AFS 161) Ethics in Traditional African Society Introduction A cursory look at Culture. A culture of a people is what marks them out distinctively from other human societies in the family of humanity. Idang is of the view that, a full study of culture in all its vastness and dimensions belongs to the discipline known as anthropology, which studies human beings and takes time to examine their characteristics and their relationship to their environments.1 Culture, as it is usually understood, entails a totality of traits and characters that are peculiar to a people to the extent that it marks them out from other peoples or societies. These peculiar traits go on to include the people’s language, dressing, music, work, arts, religion, dancing and so on. It also goes on to include a people’s social norms, taboos and values. Values here are to be understood as beliefs that are held about what is right and wrong and what is important in life. A fuller study of values rightly belongs to the discipline of philosophy. Axiology as a branch of philosophy deals with values embracing both ethics and aesthetics.2This is why philosophical appraisal of African culture and values is not only apt and timely, but also appropriate. Moreover, the centrality of the place of values in African culture as a heritage that is passed down from one generation to another, will be highlighted. We shall try to illustrate that African culture and values can be appraised from many dimensions in addition to examining the method of change and the problem of adjustment in culture. Here we hope to show that while positive dimensions of our culture ought to be practised and passed on to succeeding generations, negative dimensions of our culture have to be dropped in order to promote a more progressive and dynamic society. E.B. Taylor describes culture as that ‘complex whole’ which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs or any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. This definition captures the exhaustive nature of culture. One would have expected that this definition would be a univocal one − but this is not so. In fact, there are as many definitions of culture as there are scholars who are interested in the phenomenon. Culture embraces a wide range of human phenomena, material achievements and norms, beliefs, feelings, manners, morals and so on. It is the patterned way of life shared by a particular group of people that claim to share a single 1 2 G.E. Idang. African Cultural Values. Phronimon, 16. No.2 (2015): 97-111 Idang, African Cultural Values…98 1 origin or descent. In an attempt to capture the exhaustive nature of culture, Bello3 looks at culture as “the totality of the way of life evolved by a people in their attempts to meet the challenge of living in their environment, which gives order and meaning to their social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms thus distinguishing a people from their neighbours”. Aziza rightly puts it that; Culture...refers to the totality of the pattern of behaviour of a particular group of people. It includes everything that makes them distinct from any other group of people for instance, their greeting habits, dressing, social norms and taboos, food, songs and dance patterns, rites of passages from birth, through marriage to death, traditional occupations, religious as well as philosophical beliefs.4 This means that, culture is passed on from generation to generation. The acquisition of culture is a result of the socialisation process. The foregoing shows that every human being who grows up in a particular society is likely to become infused with the culture of that society, whether knowingly or unknowingly during the process of social interaction.5We do not need to have all the definitions of culture and its defining characteristics for us to understand the concept and meaning of culture. Etuk (2002: 13) is of the opinion that “an entire way of life would embody, among other things, what the people think of themselves and the universe in which they live − their world view − in other words, how they organise their lives in order to ensure their survival”. Culture is to be understood as the way of life of a people. This presupposes the fact that there can be no people without a culture. To claim that there is no society without a culture would, by implication, mean that such a society has continued to survive without any form of social organisation or institutions, norms, beliefs and taboos, and so on; and this kind of assertion may be quite challenging. All of us have some sense of values and there is no society without a value system.6 And whether we are aware of these values or not, the society in which we live in has ways of daily forcing its values on us about what is good, right and acceptable. We go on in our daily lives trying to conform to acceptable ways of behaviour and conduct. Persons who do not conform to their immediate society’s values are somehow called to order 3 Bello, 1991: 189 Aziza, 2001: 31 5 Idang, 99 6 Idang, 2007:4 4 2 The Terms Ethics and Morality What is Ethics? The word ethics is derived from a Greek word “ethos” which means customs, conduct/ code of conducts, tradition, habit. What then is ethics? Ethics borders on two things. First, ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Secondly, ethics refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from behaviours such as; rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, community and loyalty. Ethics, is also seen as the branch of philosophy which deals with the morality of human actions; or is the branch of philosophy which studies the norms of human behaviour, and these human actions and behaviour are governed by a set of norms or code of conduct within any given society.7 Ethics of a society is embedded in the ideas and beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is a good or bad character; it is also embedded in the conceptions of satisfactory social relations and attitudes held by the members of the society; it is furthermore, embedded, in the patterns of behaviour that are considered by the members of the society to bring about social harmony and cooperative living, justice, and fairness.8 The term ‘ethics’ is technically used by philosophers to mean a philosophical study of morality—morality understood as a set of social rules, principles, norms that guide or are intended to guide the conduct of people in a society, and as beliefs about right and wrong conduct as well as good or bad character. Commonly we speak of people being ethical or moral to mean good or right and unethical and immoral to mean wrong or bad. Philosophical ethics is the study of what makes something moral or ethical, good or right, and unethical or immoral bad or wrong. What is morality? Morality from Latin word mos (moralis)9, is translated to mean 'manner’, ‘character’, ‘proper behaviour') is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality may also be synonymous with "goodness" or "rightness". 7 Ekeopara, Chike Augustine and Ogbonnaya, Lucky Uchenna. ‘Traditional Ethics and the Maintenance of Social Order in The Nigerian Society’ European Scientific Journal 10, no. 29 (2014): 34-46. 8 https://projectregards.com/religious-and-cultural-studies/the-foundation-of-morality-in-african-ethics/ (assessed, July, 2020) 9 Proper behaviour of a person in society, literally pertaining to manners, developed by Cicero. 3 Oxford Dictionary defines ‘morality’ as moral principles pertaining to a distinction between right and wrong or good and evil. Morality is the sense and view of what is right and wrong and that which constitutes an absolute pattern for character and behaviour. It is an authoritative code of conduct in matters of right and wrong. Norwell-Smith10 holds that; morality is concerned with the relationship between human beings–how they ought to behave towards one another. It also deals with the type of relations between people which a society should adopt. By the contents of morality, he means the things which morality expects people to do and the things which people are not expected to do. Included in the content of morality according to Norwell-Smith are the things which are shown to be virtues and those which are vices— good and bad and of right and wrong. Values are those which matter to us. They are what motivate our behaviour. They ground our judgments about what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. In philosophy, ethics defines what is good for the individual and for society as a whole, and establishes the manner of duties that people owe to themselves and to one another. Ethics therefore, is an attempt to guide human conduct and also to help humans in leading good life by applying societal moral principles. Ethics and morals relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. While they are sometimes used interchangeably, they are different: ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong. The Nature of Ethics and Morality in Traditional African Society In traditional Africa a shared morality was the cement of society. It is clear from the agreement in the following lists of traditional values mentioned by different authors: Charity, honesty, hospitality, generosity, loyalty, truthfulness, solidarity, respect for nature, elders and God (Kinoti,1992:84). Elsewhere, Kinoti distinguishes between personal values, which helped individuals to be integrated people, like honesty, reliability, generosity, courage, temperance, humanity and justice and social values that helped society to remain integrated, like peace, harmony, respect for authority, respect for and fear of supernatural realities (Kinoti, 1992:80). Mojola (1988:30) adds: harmony, peace, friendliness and decency. Apart from those already mentioned, Gyekye (1998:324) mentions the following traditional African moral ideals or virtues: kindness, compassion, benevolence, concern for others – in short, any action or behaviour that is conducive to the promotion of the welfare of others. African Traditional Ethics 10 P.H. Norwell-Smith. Ethics. (Penguin Books, Ltd, 1954) 4 Traditional ethics refer to the norms, precepts, principles and moral codes, which regulate the conduct and actions of individuals in African societies11, which gears toward the maintenance, ensuring social order and stability in African traditional societies.  When a speaker of the Akan language wants to say, “He has no morals”, or, “He is immoral”, or “He is unethical”, “His conduct is unethical”, he would almost invariably say, “He has no character” (Onni suban). John Mbiti, a renowned African Philosopher and theologian, in his work African Religions and Philosophy12 writes that: There exist many laws, customs, set forms of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos constituting the moral code and ethics of a given community or society. Any breach of this code of behaviour is considered evil, wrong or bad, for it is an injury or destruction to the accepted social order and peace. As in all societies of the world, social order and peace are recognized by African people as essential and sacred, where the sense of life is so deep, it is inevitable that the solidarity (and stability) of the community must be maintained otherwise there is disintegration and destruction.13 This observation by Mbiti suggests that traditional societies in Africa had a system of morals which are preserved in their customs and traditions. According to Kofi Asare Opoku14 “the solidarity of a community is maintained by laws, customs, taboos and set forms of behaviour which constitutes the moral code”.15 These viewpoints by scholars stressed the inalienable importance of ethics and moral codes in the maintenance of social relations in African societies.16 African societies, as organised and functioning human communities, have ethical values, principles, rules—intended to guide social and moral behaviour.17 Every community, towns and villages in Africa had a system of morals that are preserved in their customs and tradition. “There is no society (in Africa) that has no set of dos and don’ts. African ethics is a ‘character-based’ ethics, which maintains that the quality of the individual's character is most fundamental in our moral life. Good character is the essence of the African moral system, the vital moral value. Tradition and custom in African society, defined the various aspect of human behaviour and social activities that were approved and those aspects that were prohibited and forbidden. All the moral codes of morality were nearly in the form of prohibitions, which were sanctioned by the deities and ancestral spirits. This account for why many Udokang. ‘Traditional Ethics and Social Order. J.S. Mbiti. African Religions and Philosophy. (London: Heinemann, 1969). 13 Mbiti, 205. 14 K. A. Opoku. West African Traditional Religion. (Singapore: FEP International, 1978). 15 Opoku, 166. 16 E J. Udokang. ‘Traditional Ethics and Social Order’, A Study in African Philosophy’, Cross- C ultural Communication 10, no. 6(2014): 266-270. (267). 17 https://projectregards.com/religious-and-cultural-studies/the-foundation-of-morality-in-african-ethics/ 11 12 5 scholars hold the view that African ethics and morality is derived from African Indigenous Religion. To this end, Ilogu observes that: Custom is derived from the deities and sanctioned by the ancestors; it is religious in nature, although it fulfils social, moral and cultural functions. Hence the unquestioned obedience which the community gives to it.18 Theocentrically, scholars such as Magesa, Mbiti, Opoku and Idowu are of the view that morality in traditional African societies has religion as its foundation (Theocentric viewpoint). They believe that the Supreme Being, the deities and the ancestors play vital roles when it comes to moral development in traditional African societies. They give humanity laws to govern the society to bring about peace in the community. They inspire people to do what is right. They punish and reward people and the community for their moral deeds. In line with the above position on the religious nature of ethics and morality, the question of the divine cannot be separated from morality in African traditional societies. The ancestors, according to Quarcoopome19for instance, perform the duties of guardians and policemen of public morality. It has been the impression of many scholars that African traditional ethics is a religious one; which means that the ethics of the traditional Africa is dependent on the African traditional religion. The supporters of this view affirm that morality is gummed to religion. However, there are other school of thought who disagree with this affirmation. Their claim is that there are people who live moral lives, but have no any religious belief or affiliations. It is pertinent to note that in the traditional African society before the advent of Christianity; it was very difficult to see anybody who does not belong to the traditional religion. Everybody belonged to the African traditional religion and had strong attachment to the philosophy, practices and the ethics which shaped their life style and ensured a just African society.20 Other scholars, such as Kwame Gyekye and others also see morality of the traditional African society as communalistic. Gyekye believes that morality in Africa is based on the common good of the society and not that of the individual. Seeking for the interest of others is central to the meaning and practices of morality in traditional African societies. The traditional African moral codes set up the relationship that should exist between the individual and God (deity) and the relationship that should exist between individuals (Humanity). In addition, traditional moral codes put checks on various forms of abuse, certain forms of sexual relations such as incest or rape, assault, the invocation of curse upon a neighbour etc… The code of ethics constitutes a central value system upon which the behavioural patterns of traditional African societies are structured. Ilogu (1975), p.23 T.N.O. Quarcoopome, West African Traditional Religion. (Ibadan: African Universities Press, 1987): 42 20 Anayo, 247 18 19 6 African peoples have a deep sense of right and wrong … this moral sense has produced customs, rules, laws, traditions and taboos which can be observed in each society”. Activity 1: mention any taboo that is observed in your community Every community, towns and villages in Africa had a system of morals which are preserved in their customs and tradition. There is no society in Africa that has no set of dos and don’ts. A society that has no norms or moral ways of enforcing good conduct is bound to run into chaos. This explains Asare Opoku’s21 observation that “the solidarity of the community is maintained by laws, customs, taboos and set forms of behaviour which constitutes the moral code”. Ozumba and Opoku’s viewpoints stress the inalienable importance of ethics and moral codes in the maintenance of social order and stability in African societies. In other words, African societies were and are maintained in terms of social order, through the observance of traditional ethical principles and moral values. Any violation or disregard of these principles resulted to disorder and social dislocation. In this regard, Tempels rightly observes that: Africans have traditionally been very conscious of the social dimension of morality. Morality is always seen in the social context. Hence any serious violation of the moral order has a social aspect which involves serious social consequences. The whole society is affected, for every evil act is an anti-social act which has adverse effects on the whole community.22 Nwosu and Kalu23 agree with Tempels’ view when they observed; “a given cultural group enjoys a high degree of stability to the extent that the members of the group allow their actions to be governed by the dominant values and norms”. Substantiating our view that African ethics and morality is the bedrock of social stability, Asouzu (1998, p.3) states that “African traditional society recognizes and holds firmly to certain values identified as necessary for correct functioning of the society and the welfare of the individuals and the society as a whole. Virtues and values of traditional African society Kwame Gyekye24 in his African Cultural Values, describes moral values as a set of social rules and norms intended to guide the conduct of people in a society. Included in the list of goods according to Gyekye are habits and patterns of behaviour considered by the society as worthwhile because of their consequences for human well-being— any action or behaviour that is conducive to the promotion of the welfare of others. The list of such K. A. Opoku. West African Traditional Religion. (Singapore: FEP Int’l, 1978), 166 Tempels (1959, p.45) 23 Nwosu and Kalu (1982), 5 24 K. Gyekye. African Cultural Values: An Introduction. (Accra: Sankofa Publishing Comp, 1996) 21 22 7 goods invariably included: kindness (generosity; ayemye), faithfulness (honesty, truthfulness: nokwaredi), compassion (mmobrohunu), hospitality (ahohoye, adoye), that which brings peace, happiness, dignity, and respect (nea ede asomdwoe, ahomeka, anuonyam ne obuo ba).25 Gyekye further observes that, within the Akan social and humanistic ethics framework, what is considered morally good is generally what promotes social welfare, solidarity, and harmony in human relationships. Moral value in the Akan system is determined in terms of its consequences for mankind and society.26 He also gives the following list which imposes on the individual a duty to the community and its members: interdependence, co-operation and reciprocity.27 The following also constitute traditional values in African society: Charity, respect for nature, elders and God, harmony, peace, friendliness and decency.28 There are also personal and social values that help individuals to relate well with others and to also integrate in the society. Such personal and social values include: reliability, generosity, courage, temperance, humanity and justice and peace, harmony, respect for authority, respect for and fear of supernatural realities respectively.29 Motlhabi, quoted in Van der Walt30 alludes that one readily encounters in the traditional African concept of a virtuous life, the equivalents of the Jewish and Christian Ten Commandments such as; prohibitions to steal, murder, commit adultery, and tell lies.31 Etiquette Etiquette is derived from the French word estique, meaning to attach or stick. The noun "etiquette" describes the requirements of behaviours according to the conventions of society. It includes the proper conduct that is established by a community for various occasions, including ceremonies, and everyday life.32 Merriam-Webster.com defines it as "the rules indicating the proper and polite way to behave in a given society”. In Ghanaian society, words like ‘foolish’, ‘silly’, ‘stupid’ should never be used. To tell a Ghanaian that he or she is a ‘beast’ or worse to specify the particular beast—goat, sheep, pig, is to disgrace such a person utterly.33 K. Gyekye. Essays on African Philosophical Thought: Akan Conceptual Scheme. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995): 131- 133. 26 Gyekye, 132. 27 Gyekye, 1996 28 Kinoti, 1992:84. See also B.J. Van der Walt, 2003. 29 B.J. Van der Walt, 2003: 54. 30 B.J. Van der Walt ‘Morality in Africa: Yesterday and today. The reasons for the contemporary crisis’. In die Skriflig 37. 1, (2003):51-71. 31 B.J. Van der Walt ‘Morality in Africa, 53. 32 https://www.thespruce.com/definition-of-etiquette-1216651 (assessed, September 2019) 33 P.K. Sarpong. Ghana in Retrospect: some aspects of Ghanaian culture. (Tema: Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1974): 93. 25 8 For a woman to call a man a ‘fool’ for whatever cause, is unpardonable no matter the intensity of provocation, or difference in age. Yet, a man should not exchange blows for such insult from the woman else, he is branded as a coward, a bully (woman fighter).34 Dealing with abusive words, Sarpong has observed that, in traditional African (Ghanaian) situation one is reminded of certain signs and gestures which are considered more abusive than words (action speaks louder than words). Such signs for example are; pouting the mouth, leaving one’s thumb standing, clenching the fingers, winking the eyes in special way.35 In matters of greetings, seniority in age among other things do not come into it at all. In traditional Ghanaian society, greetings have to do with who has ‘met’ or come ‘across whom’. If one visits another in his or her house, the visitor greets. On neutral grounds, two things may involve… either both may be in motion or one is stationary. In the first case, we often here expressions like ‘we have well met’ (y’ahyia hyia), and in the second instance, the one in motion greets for the stationary person to respond.36 Ghanaians associate filth, uncleanness, disgrace, disrespect, shame with the left hand. Hence, many Ghanaians repudiate giving something out with the left or point something out or showing someone a direction with the left hand. Sarpong has remarked that the predominance use of the right hand over the left may not be peculiar to Ghanaian or African. He explained this by using the Latin words sinister (which means left) and dexter (meaning right- dexterity)37 There is no doubt that Traditional African societies depended largely on the strict application of the moral codes of ethics for the smooth running of the society. By observing the customs, prohibitions or taboos and other normative values, social order and stability were ensured. Taboos therefore, is a derivative word from the Polynesian tabu which means forbidden. Taboo is a sacred word for religious and social injunctions put in place by indigenous people to ensure the sanctity and protection of human morality, wellbeing and future of the community. 34 35 36 37 Sarpong, Sarpong, Sarpong, Sarpong, Ghana in Retrospect, 93. 94 94. 96 9 Sanctions in traditional African societies Geldfand mentions different types of sanctions designed to ensure proper behaviour in a giving traditional society. One of them is public ridicule to cause shame, guilt and fear and to prevent antisocial behaviour. J.N. Kudajie38 opines that social structure has contributed a great deal to both the formulation of ethical ideas and the setting up of moral standard, as well as the actual enforcement of the morality shared by the community. The author mentioned values and norms that are enshrined in customs and traditions of African people as; religious beliefs and practices, taboos, the we-feeling and desire for group solidarity, influence of proverbs, folktales and stories of which some may be based on religious ideas39. In some traditional African societies such as Ghana, Nigeria among others, ways of life were (and are) usually sanctioned by the ancestors and the gods, which provided their foundation of ethical and moral codes.40 People’s beliefs about the Supreme Being and the various divinities were (and are still) invoked to enforce morality. There were promise and expectation of the blessings and protection by the aforementioned entities for those who kept the moral code on one hand, and the fear and threat of punishment of the same deities on the other hand, kept people doing what was right and avoiding what was wrong.41 Importance of Ethical and moral values Moral values are important in life because, if a person has never learned about moral values then how could he or she decide between the good and the bad in a given community. Moral values reflect an individual's character and spirituality. They help in building good relationships in personal, social as well as professional lives. Morality and ethics are relevant avenues by which traditional Africans reinforce important ideas and values of harmonious community living among members of a given society. This is because, several indigenous African communities have some motivational features and incentives through which compliance to the norms of approved behaviour and societal ideas are encouraged42 J.N. Kudajie. “How morality was enforced in Ga-Adangme Society”, in Traditional Religion in West Africa, ed. E.A. Ade Adegbola (Ibadan: Daystar Press, 1983), 170-176. 39 J.N. Kudajie. “How morality was enforced in Ga-Adangme Society”, 171. 40 Cf; S.G. Williamson, Akan Religion and the Christian faith (1955), 108-109 41 N.K. Kudadjie, 171. 42 Christopher Ejizu 38 10 Selected Readings: Ackah, C. A. Akan ethics: A study of the moral ideas and the moral behaviour of the Akan tribes of Ghana. Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 1988. Appiah-Sekyere, Paul. ‘Traditional Akan Ethics and Humanistic Ethics: A Comparative Study’ Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 3, no. 6 (2016): 110120. Ekeopara, Chike Augustine and Ogbonnaya, Lucky Uchenna. ‘Traditional Ethics and the Maintenance of Social Order in The Nigerian Society’ European Scientific Journal 10, no. 29 (2014): 34-46. Gyekye, K. African cultural values: An introduction. Accra: Sankofa Publishing Company, 1996. Gyekye, K. Essays on African Philosophical Thought: Akan Conceptual Scheme. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995. Idang, Gabriel E. ‘African Cultural Values’. Phronimon 16, no.2 (2015): 97111 Kudajie, J.N. “How morality was enforced in Ga-Adangme Society”, in Traditional Religion in West Africa, ed. E.A. Ade Adegbola (Ibadan: Daystar Press, 1983), 170-176. Mbiti, J.S. African Religions and Philosophy. London: Heinemann, 1969. Opoku, K. A. West African Traditional Religion. Singapore: FEP Int’l, 1978. Sarpong, P. Ghana in retrospect: Some aspects of Ghanaian culture. Tema: Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1974. Udokang, E J. ‘Traditional Ethics and Social Order’, A Study in African Philosophy’, Cross- C ultural Communication 10, no. 6(2014): 266-270. Green, Ronald M. ‘Religion and Morality in the African Traditional Setting’ Journal of Religion in Africa. Vol. 14, Fasc. 1 (1983): 1- 23 11