Lecture Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

nit4 nu trtion Energy andMet abolism compare and contrast kinetic and potential energy If given examples be able to identify them matterII.in energy aJetie Kinetic Energy in motion is...

nit4 nu trtion Energy andMet abolism compare and contrast kinetic and potential energy If given examples be able to identify them matterII.in energy aJetie Kinetic Energy in motion is energy qpgggggy.gg rggqggyggy Food Electricity electrons Coal Mechanical motion or Gasoline Thermal heat wood transformed into 1 11 kinetic energy in the form 2 Define the first and second Laws of Thermodynamics ftemdnamhwtrotmiddid EE Emmnthencicinitieted nordestroyed it forms conserved can only change The total amount of energy in the universe is constant Potential energy kinetic energy 100 earth energy In eukaryotic cells mitochondria converts energy stored in organic molecules like sugars into use directly ATP the form of energy cells can adenosine mitochondria Glucose triphosphate ATP ondlawofhermodynamics.mn When one form of energy is converted to will another some of the useful energy be lost as useless energy like heat Not all the transformed energy is usuable No conversion is 100 efficient 3 Differentiate endergonic and exergonic  reactions What are some properties of each Two types of chemical reaction E reactions iii ravorame.ee tginfavorabe reactions Do not require energy Requireenergy to occur release They energy 4 Compare and contrast catabolism and anabolism How do they work together in metabolism Metabolism refers to all the biochemical reactions that occur within a cell B ak d n B r Ñ I  reactions synthesis megapon O O O O O O B 0 0 Energy B o 8 O O Energy Htore 900 90 000000 000000 NGC 1 le A 6C molecule two 3 molecules I can Glucose energy Energy pyruvate come from Many of these reactions involves the redu off involve oxidation of molecules so protons or electrons e are added molecules so Ht ore endothermic are removed Requires energy The result is the Includes dehydration synthes release of reactions energy exothermic Include hydrolysisreactions them Metabolic Cycling Cells can the energy released from catabolic use reactions to power anabolic ones  released Heat w iiiii.is dJreacions AMT Misfirenergyrom ghf im apg jy onJ molecules ADPt LampleTeculeshaHeat fpg such as starch released proteinsand lipids  Metabolism i iiyiiii.in Hydrolysis Dehydration synthesis Oxidation Reduction Energy releasing Energy consuming exothermic endothermic 5 Understand how and various enzymes work methods by which we can alter their functions Biochemical reactions of metabolism would take if they were not helped place very slowly Enzymes are proteins usually that can speed up reactions catalysis ase Almost every reaction in metabolism or a  metabolic a specificenzyme pathway requires If all enzymes for a metabolic pathway are not present then the end product will not be produced EL A D F G B mustle the system to ÉÉÉ activation reaction get the adÉiµÉi keyconcept in a started catabolicreaction of the materialstar calledenergy atsomeenergy activation level o silence energy is released time The are at a lower products  ep energy level Reactionswithenzyme.se decrease Enzymes can the amount of energy the required to start reaction start lowers the energys T Lower energy of activation of activation i key concept Enzymes wor by lowering 1 diii Time µ Hydrolysisofsucros energy.me energyff EYES into The disaccharide sucrose can break monosaccharides if energy is added If the appropriate enzyme is present it takes to break the bond much lessenergy Enzymespecificity An enzyme mustphysically interact with its substrate Efythgmy M like a key and lock Area where this interaction takes place is called the enzyme's active site  substratecompley Enzyme with complex 3D Enzymes proteins are and each recognizes a specific shapes substrate substrates are the reactant s upon which the enzyme must fit in active shape of the substrate site for it to work form a complex with their Enzymes at the active site called the substrates substrate ES complex enzyme it releases the ES complex breaks up When product D no Enzyme catalyzes u a chemical reaction  y Enzymefunctions Some physical and chemical factors can affect bonds within proteins changing the shape Therefore some chemical and physical factors can affect rates of reactions catalyzed by an enzyme Main factors affecting enzyme function 1 Amount of substrate 2 Temperature have Enzymes proteins 3 PH optimal temperatures and pH values 4 Acids Bases 5 UV light 6 Inhibitors  Enzyme function Amount of substrate substrate rate ofreactionhm will level off as active sites Reaction rate become full once all active sites are full adding more substrate does not speed up further x̅ EE f of saturation ytsl4 slto substrate concentration  Temperaturen with temperature Enzyme activity increases cause effective more Warmer temperatures and substrate collisions between enzyme Most Enzymes or human heat tolerant bacteria Degradationth tiiit.AE Temperature C Howeverextremely hot temperatures destroy the enzyme denaturing it by Enzyme function pH The digestive system has areas with different  g y PH to work with the pH needed Enzymes adapt are in the area where they present likes the acidic stomach Pepsin functions best in the pH upper Trypsin intestine Trypsin hanges in pH Pepsin Ewill affect the ffÉ hydrogen bonds in the enzyme affecting the shape of its 1 active site reactions in humans Enzymes catalyzing atpH 7.4 cells often have maximum activity  The pH 7.4 is normal body pH ʰ F 111 I PH But the enzymes in Helicobacter pylori a kind of bacteria that lives in ourstomachsfunction at a much lower pH Temperatureandpt Optimal performance at some level leads to decreased Denaturation at extremes activity at low and high T Unfolding  g g Inhibitorscu Reversible inhibitors disrupt binding of substrate to enzyme Competitive inhibitors with substrate for same binding site Compete Non competitive inhibitors free to disrupt enzyme interacts with enzyme substrate complex of preventing the alter shape enzyme May substrate from binding competitiveinhibitorff Reaction is reversible Inhibitor eventually separates from the enzyme then bind to the free active site substrate can slows the speed at which the enzyme works cell which slows the performance of the  p As Increase in substrate concentration b Enzyme metabolic pathways Enzyme regulation Reactions usually occur in a sequence become reactants Products of an earlier reaction of a later reaction such linked reactions form a metabolic pathway Begins with a particular reactant Proceeds through several intermediates I th l ularend d I p  Terminates with a particular end product A B G D E F G A is reactant initially isend product Intermediates Negativefeedball inhibits action of an Pathway product the pathway enzyme in it is the the product is produced When the system signal to turn off Negative feedback Histidine substrate Enzyme 00 Enzyme Enzyme Enzyme 0 JAN 1 Tab  Negative feedback Histidineinhibits action of Δ enzyme 1 Enzyme regulation Allosteric feedback inhibition Enzyme cascade Pathway several enzymes involved and the products of each reaction becomes the substrate for the next enzyme in the sequence When end product present it serves as a regulation of enzyme 1 by altering the active site Absence of inhibitor allows reaction to be on Not energetically Favorable to always be on regulation Phosphorylation Enzyme a phosphate Phosphorylation is when added to an substrate group is on enzyme 9 1 level phosphorylation Can either activate or inhibit the its function enzyme depending upon Oxidative Phosphorylation production derived from of ATP using energy in an of electrons the transfer transport system electron of Photophosphorylation production of sunlight ATP using the energy 0 0 0 0 0 00 inactiveprotein active protein is the removal De phosphorylation of a phosphate group  Enzyme Activity need helpers to Enzymes sometimes the reaction enzyme catalyze cofactors be necessary for Cofactors might to become active enzyme Fe needed for Ions of metal hemoglobin cofactor A coenzyme is an organic i.e it which assists the enzymeatoms to contribute may actually reaction the vitamins NADP NAD FAD Electron carriers  has 6 Indicate which atom or molecule oxidized reduced a been or given reduction particular oxidation reaction Redox reactions transfer of either hydrogen Involves the atoms or electrons or Oxidation is the loss of electrons oxidation Is loss hydrogen atoms OIL catabolic electrons or Reduction is the gain of Reduction Is Gain atoms RIG hydrogen anabolic Enzyme cofactors Some enzymes especially those involved in reduction oxidation REDOX reactions require  de CR 9 or helper molecules called coenzymes cofactors me 11 1hydrogen atom may be transferred to the coenzyme A NAD to form NAD Forexample when soitt substrates are oxidized The reducing power extra electron stored in NADH can then be transferred to another substrate Mom I e This substrate has d th FAD can do the been same thing but a oxidized when becomes FADH b reduced reduced Natcl Natch Na is oxidized because it must have lost an electron to acquire a charge OIL be Cl is reduced because it must an electron to acquire a charge gaining RIG We cantell if electrons are moving by at the movement of hydrogen looking FADT H2 FAD H2 FAD is reduced It gained a hydrogen Importantredonadionsly Combustion oxidation occurs very rapid released and energy is or coal Burning gasoline Corrosion interaction of oxygen with metal slowly happens very rest Oxidation of iron creates of organic molecules Decay oxidation down dead material breaks are redox reactions Biological processes vital for energy production breakdown of Food from the ATP to the creation of  chapterol Energy photosynthesis to 1 What is needed for photosynthesis occur That is what are the reactants Energyflow I Photosynthesis I Eer T.in IEg.d Elgar  Conversion of from the sun Into lightenergy Reactions chemical via Redox energy CGM206 602 602 6H20 sunlight 2 What are the two of phases photosynthes occur What are Where does each phase the inputs outputs of each phase are the organelle found within Chloroplasts and other organisms able to undergo plants photosynthesis hyammenman Chlorophyll molecule absorb sunlight Electron chain transport At Stth rates in the thylakoid sac stroma ygg.gg Lightreations Light dependent occur in the thylakoid granum ATP NADPH Produces chemical energy from solar energy Calvincycle light independent Occur in the stroma made us step 1 to ATPand NADPH use the environmen reduce CO2 absorbed from C H 2061 into glucose Thelightreactionsmn in the thylakoid Splits H2O Releases 02 electron acceptor NADP Reduces the to NADPH ATP from ADP by Generates photophosphorylation ATP and Light reactions generate of energy increase the potential them from electrons by moving H2O to NADPH energy into transforing light chemical energy Thecalvincyclman In the stroma from ATP forms sugar Co2 using and NADPH that come from the reactions anabolic light The calvin cycle begins with CO2 carbon fixation incorporating into molecules organic C3 Photosynthesis as co and carbon enters the cycle leaves as a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate G3P in carbon compounds Storing energy G3P the For net synthesis of one must take three times cycle place  la e cylem pa molecules of CO2 fixing three Threephasest 1 Carbon Fixation catalyzed by rubisco Enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylate Fixes carbon from air Adds CO2 to RUBP in Most important enzyme the world Makes life out of air Most abundant enzyme 50 of protein in a typical leaf is rubisco  Made of 16 polypeptides 1 Carbon fixation catalyzed by rubisco RUBP CO2 PGA 2 Reduction PGA is reduced to G3P the CO2 3 Regeneration of RUBP acceptor PGA is used to regenerate RUBP 3 Coz incorporate enoughG3P to a new carbon produce 602 incorporate enough carbon for one glucose  a g C3Plants_ on a hot respiration dry day photo 50 of the can drain up to fixed by the Calvin cycle carbon In most plants C plants initial rubisco forms fixation of CO2 via 3 C compound 3 phosphoglycerate rubisco adds In photorespiration the Calvin 02 instead of co in a two carbon cycle producing compound  Cyplants Cy plants minimize the cost of by incorporating photorespiration CO2 into four carbon compounds of cells in Two distinct types the leaves of Cy plants Bundle sheath cells arranged in tightly packed veins of sheaths around the the leaf Mesophyll cell between the loosely packed and the leaf bundle sheath surface  Camplants succulents some plants including use crassulacean acid metabolism CAM to Fix carbon CAM plants their stomata open water at night conserves into acids Co2 incorporating organic the vacuoles that are stored in Stomata close during the day and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the calvin cycle  d ut by Ñ k pÉein Uses ATP and NADPH thylakoid membranes to convert CO2 to the convert lightenergy G3P sugar to the chemical Returns ADP inorganic energy of ATP and phosphate and NADP NADPH reactions to the light Splits H2Oand Consumed CO2 releases O2 into the atmosphere Produced the sugar G3P Produced ATP rated ADP Regen NADPH NADP consumed H2O Produced as a byproduct  91 3 How does water contribute to the overall process of photosynthesis That is what happens to water at the light of the beginning reactions that allows dependent and for the release of oxygen of two items needed the creation the calvin cycle for and Essential for oxygen production carriers of energy the generation the calvin cycle that drive is essential in photosynthesis It during the light dependent photolysis reactions It is split releasing by light energy d Cl This  by g gy this as a byproduct oxygen also produces protons process which are used and electrons and ATP NADPH to generate are carriers These energy calvin cycle for the crucial is carbon dioxide where into glucose converted of the significance 4 What is b and a chlorophyll chlorophyll carotenoids there are Within the thylakoids that absorb certain pigments wavelengths of light Chlorophyll a the key light capturing pigment gment  b an accessory pigment Chlorophyll of Carotenoids a separate group accessory pigments that are not absorbed Wavelengths or transmitted are reflected because leaves appear green color is transmitted that light Chlorophyll a blue and red light to convert absorber into light energy chemical energy it by Chlorophyll b complements absorbing light in blue and orange red wavelengths  waveleng broadening light capture carotenoids absorb blue and green light protect photo damage against antioxidant and act as Together these pigments optimize photosynthesis and safeguard plant cells 5 What is the of rubisco significance what happen if it were not present on Earth Rubisco is vital for photosynthesis it the fixation of as catalyzes carbon dioxide in calvin cycle th forming the basis of plant growth without it the carbon primary fixation process would be to severely disrupted leading decrease in plant a dramatic rowth and oxygen productionof This will lead to a collapse and food chains ecosystems life on earth threatening Why are photosynthetic organisms like algae important so require energy All living organisms to live and grow of energy on The ultimate source earth is the sun convert Photosynthetic organisms r i nl l  y into the energy of sunlight energy molecules such as glucose rich food the different types of What are tranformations of energy and what out do organisms carry energy created nor is neither Energy converted from is destroyed but into another one form of is the energy Kinetic energy motion Example heat energy Potential energy stored energy is Ex chemical energy from the sun is captured Energy and transferred through living and flows back organisms energy into the environment as heat  n With every conversion of energy lost to the some energy is environment as heat convert the how do plants and algae rich into energy energy in sunlight molecules organic the Photosynthesis captures energy converts it into and ofsunlight chemical energy G Chlorophy has two steps Photosynthesis and water is split light energy captures 2 captured electrons and to supply convert and electrons help energy into glucose carbon dioxide are Photosynthetic organisms Animals 11 h self feeders  self feeders autotrophs and are do not photosynthesize other feeders heterotrophs to How do algal biofuels compare in terms of costs other fuels and sustainability benefits convert glucose Photosynthetic algae can be rich oils that into energy for an to fossil fuels alternative vehicles powering Enitoicellularrespirationne what difference between is the autotrophs and heterotrophs sautrophshetertrophs chÉmic etrg to retakingÉn Ya a e n on build carbon based carbon bonds in molecules organic already existing Anabolism 02 4207 carbon compounds GH 206 catabolism C6Hiz Anabolism catabolism CO2 120 of proteins nucleic Catabolism of acids carbon proteins and Inorganic nucleic acids Photosynthetic organic carbon  y 9 others organisms but exist 2 What is the useful form of in the cell How do cells energy use this molecule for energy convert stored in Cells energy molecules to useful organic in the form of energy ATP adenosine triphosphate need to maintain Cells energy and keep its organization the chemical reactions all going  ATP is the form of energy used to do work inside a cell cells need energy to do inside cells anabolic reactions active transport of molecules muscle contractions of cilia and Flagella motion use the Cells cannot directly stored in carbon carbon energy bonds of glucose cannot TV directly Just as your in a stored use the energy of coal or sunlight lump the stored cells can use energy in the final phosphate phosphate cells In eukaryotic bond in ATP mitochondria converts energy stored in organic molecules like sugars into ATP  IP molecules like sugars into A cells ATP by breaking it use to release energy which down like muscle powers processes movement and transporting substances ATP Glucose mitochondria ADP by a Production of ATP from direct transfer of a high energy from a phosphorylated phosphate group intermediate metabolic compound creates I ATP of 3 What are the four steps aerobic cellular respirationWhat each occur Where does of needed at is the beginning h I is formed  What is formed thos is n that step Where do that step during products go i TEE.EE onstnat converts stored food energy in ATP in the of occurs presence oxygen ADP TO ATP CYCLE 1 When need energy your body you one of the phosphate hydrolyzes and one phosphate bonds releasing of tremendous amount energy a  release of one phosphate 2 With the molecule with ont from ATP a new formed adenosine is two phosphates ADP A phosphate or diphosphate to ADP to is added back group catabolism reform ATP during that requires A cellular process off carbon and gives oxygen dioxide involves breakdown of Usually and to carbon dioxide glucose water extracted from glucose Energy molecule Released step wise  I Allows ATP to be produced efficiently Oxidation reduction enzymes and FAD as include NAD transfers electrons coenzymes Most common macromolecule catabolized to get Glucose is a common carbohydrate source energy Coth 06 02 CO2 4H20 electrons released Aerobic respiration passed down by oxidation are an Transport system Electron the Final with oxygen being Electron Acceptor  Krebs Glycosis Transition Reaction Chain Cycle Electron Transport Coat H2O Ethanol CoHp 06 Fermentation anaerobic respiration Glycolysis Fermentation Four respiration steps 1 Glycolysis 2 Transition Reaction 3 Kreb's or Citric Acid Cycle 4 Electron transport system Fermentation steps  I Glycolysis 2 End product formation Three stages involving 10 total steps investment stage Glucose Energy is converted into 2 molecules of 6 phosphate glyceraldehyde carbon a three CGGP which is 2 ATPs are invested molecule GGP converted is to Lysis stage of glucose 3 two molecules are and electrons phosphate are released Electrons NAD NADH picked up by electrons is it IF NAD gains d d  Ir g reduced or oxidized Reduced 2 ATPs Energy Conserving stage are formed from substrate phosphorylation the GPs At this point to been converted have pyruvic acid Glycosis material Glucose Starting Products 2 NADH ATP net 2 2 pyruvate No oxygen required  yg a All can do organisms is glycolysis as no oxygen required use the Mitochondrion can of to products glycolysis more produce even energy in the ATP form of occurs Aerobic respiration in the mitochondria Step 2 Transition reaction connects glycolysis to Krebs I  cycle acid is completely Pyruvic CoA oxidized to produce acetyl series of redox reactions by a End Products includes 2 Acetyl CoA 2 CO2 and 2 NADH molecules for Acetyl CoA required is the Kreb's cycle the next step Glycolysis QQ carbon bond is broken A carbon and NADT 13 reduced Moves the carbon from the  to the mitochondria cytoplasm A COA binds to the coenzyme remaining 2 carbons to yield acetyl CoA 2 starting material pyruvate Products 2 NADH 2 Acetyl CoA 2 CO2 Oxygen required Yes Step 3 The Kreb's or citric acid cycle Acetyl CoA reacts with oxalo acetic acid to start the to make citric acid cycle started doesn't once stop Think of it as a water wheel on a mill One turn of the wheel generates IFAD H2 3 NADH and IATP 2 CO2 We two turns of the get wheel from one glucose molecule Thus we 2 ATP 2 FAD H2 get 6 NADH and 4 CO2 from one  a C2 glucose The cycle creates more oxalo acetic acid CoA is available If acetyl more at the end of one turn it will another turn again creating round of products material Acetyl CoA Starting Products 6 NADH Z ATP 2 FADH 402 Oxygen required Yes  yg 9 the end of two turns of By the Krebs one molecule cycle of has been catabolized glucose to 2 ATP 4 ATPC2 ATP from glycolysis from Krebs cycle 6 CO2 2 glycolysis 2 transition 2 Krebs cycle 2 transition 10 NADH C2 glycolysis 6 Krebs cycle ZF AD Hz C2 Krebs cycle NADH and FADH take now part in the electron transport in the electron transportmore chain ETC to produce ATP are electron donors They because now have they hydrogens Step 4 Electron transport chain Electrons are released from the NADH and pass through chain through electron transport series of redox reactions a As the electrons pass through the chain ATP is made About 34 36 ATP are made by this per one glucose process  I 1 9 molecule the electrons combine At the end H and O2 to make water with Final electron acceptor is oxygen electrons used to Energy from the H across pump protons a membrane establishing proton gradient cristae Eukaryotes membrane Prokaryotes cytoplasmic 4 What is the function of ATP synthase is an in ATPsynthase enzyme mitochondrial cell membrane the the created It can use energy H to make by the gradient ATP It in the intermembrane back into space want to get electrochemical the matrix strong gradient As protons move through ATP synthase ADP is to phosphorylated  I pry produce ATP 32 34 ATP molecules can be produced to 3 per NADH 2 FAD H2 per 5 How ATP are produced many from this process How many are made via substrate level versus oxidative phosphorylation phosphorylation 36 38 ATP Not yield per glucose YATP substrate level phosphorylation Glycolysis 2 ATP Krebs Cycle 2 NTP  Krebs cycle ZAIP chain From Electron transport 3 AT Peach NADH produces 3 10 30 ATP 2 Glycolysis Reaction 2 Transition Krebs cycle 6 FADH produces 2 ATP each 2 2 4 ATP Glycolysis O O Transition Reaction Krebs cycle 2 6 How does the process of to fermentation compare aerobic respiration Ientationaerbicrespirature occurs in the Requires oxygen absence of oxygen totally oxidize glucose Yields only about Produces about ZATPperglucose 30 32 ATP per molecule glucose molecule Produces Produces carbon Yrordkt.SI bYprod Fs the on pendifInvolves glycolysis organism C Idicacidin  mean gy y g animals ethanol the Krebs cycle and electron transport and carbon chain dioxide in yeast Primarily involves More efficient due glycolysis to complete followed by oxidation of reactions that GENEVA allowing glycolysis o continue less efficient WAY as glucose is only partially oxidized  Fermentation Sometimes cells cannot completely oxidize glucose by cellular respiration constant source of Cells require cannot be obtained NAD that and using glycolysis by simply the Krebs cycle electron transport respiration In from NADH NAD regenerates Fermentation pathways provide of source cells with alternate on the enzymes NADT depends present in the organism to make Use glycolysis only  gy y y ZATP can't use the ETC with no oxygen lactic acid from pyruvate Make the electrons and Accept free the NAD Lactic acid will build up if not removed quickly material 2 pyruvate starting ZNADH Products 2NAD 2 CO2 ethanol or an acid NO oxygen required 7 What are some possible products of fermentation Lactic acid fermentation Use to make 2 glycolysis only ATP We can't use the electron chain as we have transport no oxygen Make lactic acid from pyruvate Accept the electrons and free the NAD Lactic acid will build up if not removed quickly  q Ethyl Alcohol CO2 fermentation For bread we are capturing the CO2 gas produced by the it ferments yeast as The gas causes the bread to rise The alcohol evaporates during baking 8 do convert Why organisms acid to a different pyrivic fermentation product during  Ñ actobacillus lactic acid Bacillus Saccharomyces Ethanol yeast CO2 É mM Popmba CO2 and Hz nm Butyric acid Clostridium aa butanol acetone  I t Ethanol lactic Escherichia Salmonella 1Pakd acid succinic acid acetic acid CO2 and Hz Ethanol lactic Tutanedioacetoin Enterobacter acid formic acid man NADT To regenerate for glycolysis to continue and for energy production cellular metabolism maintaining  g UNITTIDNITO What is the central dogma of biology Protein DNA RNA Transcription Translation Replication MRNA Ribosome 7 mRNA rRNA A WProtein cell structures and functions inheritance Applications of f my DNA language What are made of genes Chromosomes are comprised Morgan of DNA and protein Old hypothesis genes were comprised of proteins 2 What are nucleotides made How do differ from of they RNA to DNA Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids A phosphate group  A phosphate group A five carbon sugar ribose in in DNA RNA and deoxyribose Nitrogenous base Deoxyribose 5 carbonsugar DNA 8Phosphate group Nitrogenous base Thymine 2541004 RNA Ribose 5 carbon sugar phosphase group Uracil 8 Nitrogenous base C to 05 Deoxyribose lacks one oxygen  RNA have a 5 carbon Both DNA pentose sugar DNA doublestranded RNA Single stranded usually RNA ribose X is OH Hydroxylgroup CSH 005 DNA deoxyribose X is H Cgt004 3 What nitrogenous bases are in DNA How about in RNA Which ones pair together held together How are they versus Which ones are purines pyrimidines DNA RNA C c Cytosine Cytosine Guanine G Guanine G Adenine A Adenine A Thymine T Uracil U complementary base pairs CG ATorAU v v  v v 1 a hydrogen 3 hydrogen bonds bonds bonds are important to Hydrogen structure of nucleic maintain the them to acid molecules allowing double helix DNA stabilize their RNA structure stranded or single Purines double ring AG Pyrimidines single ring TCU Practicequestionse break Will it take more energy to the bonds of an A T base pair or a G C base pair A T 2 hydrogen bonds GEC 3 More to break the energy extra hydrogen bond in the G C base pair What component of a nucleotide between is always the same RNA and DNA  N and D N phosphate group links the nucleotides together to form the backbone of the nucleic acid What is the difference between the in DNA and RNA sugars Ribose has one more oxygen than deoxyribose Adenine is a purine or pyrimidine Purine has two rings Which nitrogenous base is not found in DNA Uracil  What nitrogenous base does bond with guanine cytosine What type of bonds do these two nitrogenous bases form53 and Hydrogen bonds arose pays was or Of iinPA i Model misii.int i g a 4 What do Chargaff's Rules state ErwinChargaff looked at DNA composition in different species and found that The DNA of different species had different percentages of A T C and G BUT For any one species The of As was always the same as of Ts the same of Gs was always The as of CS to solve used of A T clue structure G C the helix DNA double 5 What do we mean by double 2 h I h  helix What comprises each part Double Helix model similar to a twisted ladder backbone sugar phosphate makes up slides held together by specialized known as covalent bonds bonds phosphodiester bonded bases make hydrogen the up rings sugar phosphate backbone  0134mm g 3.4mm 6 Define the following a Antiparallel strands run in opposite directions 5 end 3 end end 5 end b Semi conservative Each original strand acts as a template which a new against strands is synthesized Several parts of the DNA can be replicated simultaneously c Origin of replication starting points d leading strand synthesized continously d  c lagging strand is synthesized in pieces that are then joined together ligase seals the gaps f Okazaki fragments created from lagging strand utilizing multiple polymerases sealed together to create one continuous backbone of sugar phosphate groups Phosphodiester bond is formed g between nucleotides Specialized covalent bonds 7 What is are the function s of the following enzymes in DNA replication a Helicase separates hydrogen bonds Weak hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases are broken Termed replication fork Moves away from origin of in each direction replication stranded DNA stabilized single single strand binding proteins by SSBPs b Topoisomerase Topoisomerase reduces supercoiling of DNA ahead of DNA helicase Breaks both strands removes a twist then rejoins strands c Primase RNA in synthesize short primer DNA template strand short of RNA makes a piece for providing starting point polymerase another enzyme DNA strand to build new d Polymerase Adds nucleotides Movement occurs in 5 3 direction of template Directionality opposite is to structure strand due antiparallel of 5 carbon on the new Phosphate to the OH nucleotide is added group on 3 carbon of the old nucleotide Add one at a time Requires OH provided by primase Adds complementary nitrogenous bases One polymerase removes primer th DNA  replaces with RNA based DNA based backbone e igase Seals Gaps in backbone acts like a glue for DNA DNA of helps stick pieces f Gyrase needed to replicate bacterial DNA introduces negative supercoils twists turns in DNA helps manage cuts the DNA when tangled lets it twist a bit reconnect its 8 what are telomeres What is telomerase Telomeres DNA at ends of chromosomes that not ie do not code are genes they for protein short telomeres Abnormally for a series of responsible disorders Telomerase an that enzyme elongates the telomeres Active in germline cells before meiosis and lengthened fertilization Active in cancer cells but shouldn't be Dr Greider shared Nobelprize in 2009  p for its discovery Replication mar bacteria have a 11th nucleus single circular loop of DNA DNA replication Replication moves at numerous anana mecinar begins DNA molecule in points along linear both directions chromosome Produces two identical Replication bubbles circles spread bi directionally until they meet closedrung Bacteria DNA is in a is twisted and 11 It very  4 ry it is said to be in a SUPERCOILED state 9 What is the purpose of PCR chain reaction Polymerase laboratory technique scientists use to amplify replicate a specific DNA segment to study is Procedures Add these ingredients DNA DNA Free nucleotides to add to new strands Polymerase enzyme  ymerase zy short segments of DNA that Primers DNA polymerase to the guide section of DNA to copy cause the Temperature cycles DNA strands to replicate for a time separates Heating DNA strands time allows DNA cooling for a to new polymerase pair with the original nucleotides strands template Result Allows DNA replication to occur times many many times Can make billions of copies from of a few a starting sample just molecules of DNA DNA profiling allows us to identify characteristics in the the unique DNA OF a person toplasm  cytopl Aerobicrespirations catabolic f1 Glycolysis glucose 2ATP 2pyruvate 2NADt bc Fc ᵗᵗʰ É 3 Krebkitric acidcycle 2acetylcoa ITP GNADH 242C 2 4 2 ÉÉf 4 4 Electron NADH FADH H gradient transport 36 38 1  2__ 6HntQHMMAPIg Fermentation Catabolic 1 Glycolysis glucose 2ATP 2uvatet INADI Fermentation 2pyruvate 2NADH lactic acid or E OH 02 substrate level phosphorylation oxidative phosphorylation released  directly to electron transport begin next step Photosynthesis Anabolic light 1 lightreactions sunlight H20 thylakoid IPTNADPH light Stroma 2 Calvincycle CO2 ATP NADPH glucose COztHz0 sunlight tglucose Photosynthesis GCoyGHzotlightenergy Cothoo on