Lecture 7: Verb Phrases, Adjective, Adverb, and Prepositional Phrases PDF

7. The verb phrase, the adjective phrase, the adverb phrase and the prepositional phrase Summary In this chapter we define verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases and lay out their internal structure. The verb phrase is built around a main verb, which is precede...

7. The verb phrase, the adjective phrase, the adverb phrase and the prepositional phrase Summary In this chapter we define verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases and lay out their internal structure. The verb phrase is built around a main verb, which is preceded or not by auxiliary verbs. The other three types of phrases are governed by a head-word, namely an adjective, an adverb and a preposition, respectively. Except for the verb phrase, which can only function as verbal within clauses, all the other phrases have various syntactic realizations both at phrase and at clause level (such as premodifier, postmodifier, complement, prepositional complement, subject, subject complement, object complement, direct object, prepositional object). We also demonstrate the ability of prepositional phrases to be embedded recursively in other phrases or phrases of the same type. Goals The goals of the chapter are to: divide verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases and prepositional phrases into corresponding functional parts distinguish between two subclasses of auxiliary verbs - primary and modal auxiliaries outline the syntactic realizations of the verb phrase, the adjective phrase, the adverb phrase and the prepositional phrase within phrases and clauses Chapter contents 7.1. The verb phrase 7.1.1. Definition and structure 7.1.2. Syntactic functions of verb phrases 7.2. The adjective phrase 7.2.1. Definition and structure 7.2.2. Syntactic functions of adjective phrases 7.3. The adverb phrase 7.3.1. Syntactic functions of adverb phrases 7.3.2. Definition and structure 7.4. The prepositional phrase 7.4.1. Definition and structure 7.4.2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases Further reading and video resources Exercises Key terms verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, main verb, modal auxiliary, perfect auxiliary, progressive auxiliary, passive auxiliary, head, modifier(s), complement(s), recursive embedding 7.1. The verb phrase 7.1.1. Definition and structure Most grammars agree that the verb phrase (VP) consists of a head, which is a lexical or a primary verb1, preceded by optional elements, the primary and/or modal auxiliaries. A simple verb phrase consists in the head/main verb only. The main verb selects the other clause elements that can occur in the clause (see valency). The auxiliaries further characterize the action, state, or process expressed by the main verb. Finite verb phrases mark distinctions of tense between present and past and can be preceded by modal auxiliaries. Non-finite verb phrases are not marked for tense and cannot occur with modal auxiliaries. Verb phrases are discontinuous/split into two parts (Biber, et al., 2002, p. 42) in two situations: - in questions, the subject is placed after the (first) auxiliary verb: What's he doing? (verb phrase is doing) - adverbs or other adverbials can interrupt the parts of a verb phrase: He has just arrived.(just is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb). Note that this interposed position of the adverb between the auxiliary and the main verb never occurs in Romanian (El a tocmai ajuns.). Biber, Conrad and Leech’s table of the main forms of the VP below (2002, p. 43), illustrated with show as main verb and could as a modal auxiliary can be used for future reference. present tense past tense modal simple shows/show showed could show perfect has/have shown had shown could have shown progressive am/is/are showing was/were showing could be showing passive am/is/are shown was/were shown could be shown perfect+ progressive has/have been showing had been showing could have been showing perfect +passive has/have been shown had been shown could have been shown progressive +passive am/is/are being shown was/were being shown could be being shown As we can see in the table above, primary and modal auxiliaries can combine in forms like may have done, has been done, is being done. Primary auxiliaries follow modals and, as we have already seen in Leech's model, if all are present, they occur in the order shown below. MODAL + PERFECT + PROGRESSIVE + PASSIVE Nevertheless, the verb phrases with four or more verbs (such as could have been being shown) are quite uncommon. 7.1.2. Syntactic functions of verb phrases The verb phrase has only one function in the clause and no function in other phrases. Thus, both 1 Lexical, primary and auxiliary verb are discussed in 5.4. the finite (a) and non-finite (b) verb phrases always realize the verbal of the clause they belong to. a. His friends| were preparing| a surprise party. (were preparing – verbal, finite VP) b. His friends enjoy || |preparing| surprise parties||. (preparing – verbal in -ing-Cl, non-finite VP) 7.2. The adjective phrase 7.2.1. Definition and structure An adjective phrase is a phrase in which the head is an adjective. The simplest type of adjective phrase consists of an adjective only, as in They had powerful cars. Like noun phrases, adjective phrases can be made more complex by adding words that modify/complement the head. Modifiers qualify what is denoted by the adjective, and they are optional. Thus, in terms of structure, the adjective phrase (AdjP) typically consists of a head, optionally preceded and followed by modifiers. Modifiers that precede the head are alternatively called specifiers and those that follow it, complements. Heads, premodifiers and postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure of AdjPs: adjective phrase structure example head nice premodifier + head very nice head + postmodifier nice of you to come premodifier + head + postmodifier very nice of you to come The head of the adjective phrase is always realized by an adjective or another constituent of adjectival nature. Adjectives are words that typically modify nouns, by specifying the properties or the attributes of that noun. [NP a [AdjP calm] attitude] Specifiers typically indicate the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective. The most common type of specifier consists of degree adverbs, such as very, so, too, etc. The elements following the head serve to complete the meaning of the adjective and are generally called postmodifiers or complements. Complements mainly take the form of - prepositional phrases (too late for reconciliation) - comparative constructions (funnier than the last show) - degree adverbs (useful enough) - to-infinitive clauses (too poor to feed themselves) - comparative clauses (His behavior was ruder than I could imagine.) Postmodifiers are called ‘complements’ because they normally complete what is implied in the meaning of the adjective. For example, if we say His mother is very angry with him, we mean that the subject is characterized in some respect by a certain state (angry), and the postmodifier specifies in what respect - with him. Certain adjectives (aware, fond, subject, afraid, etc.) require the presence of a postmodifier for completeness2. Verbs with similar meanings can be used as synonyms for such adjectives that take obligatory postmodifiers. A few examples are provided in the table below. adj example verb example aware I'm aware of the consequences. know I know that there will be consequences. fond She is fond of cats. like She likes cats. subject The proposal is subject to debate. submit They submit the proposal for debate. afraid She is afraid of snakes. fear She fears snakes. 7.2.2. Syntactic functions of adjective phrases Adjective phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below. syntactic function example in the 1. subject complement That moment was special. clause 2. object complement They found him nice. in the 1. premodifier of a noun or NP a special surprise phrase 2. postmodifier of a noun or NP the nicest surprise party possible 3. head in NP the blind Subject complement is the most typical role of the adjective phrase in the clause. The head adjective in an adjective phrase functioning as subject complement is classified as predicative adjective. Predicative adjectives occur after a link verb, which is the normal position of the subject complement. The most typical role of the adjective phrase at the level of phrase is that of premodifier of NP, where the adjective is classified as attributive adjective. Attributive adjectives normally occur before the nouns they modify (see examples above), but the members of a small subclass, called postpositive adjectives, actually follow the head noun. The resulting noun phrases are fixed ‘official’ expressions such as Asia Minor, attorney general, governor general, heir apparent, notary public, Princess Royal, times past, etc. Another situation of postposition is when the head the adjective modifies indefinite or demonstrative pronouns such as something (something nice), everyone (everyone alive), those (those responsible), etc. 2 Together with other adjectives, they are grouped in lists labelled 'adjectives with obligatory prepositions' that can be found in usage books such as Raymond Murphy’s English Grammar In Use with Answers and CD ROM: A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. 7.3. The adverb phrase 7.3.1. Syntactic functions of adverb phrases Adverb phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are illustrated with examples in the table below. syntactic function3 example 1. adverbial They had a surprise party yesterday. in the 2. subject complement That’s quite all right. clause 3. direct object I don’t know when. They didn’t tell me why. 4. subject (marginally) Today is the last Friday in the month. 1. modifier in AdjP a very pleasant surprise party 2. modifier in AdvP almost surprisingly 3. modifier in NP the then Minister of Health; a nearby hotel 4. modifier of determiners about double; roughly half; almost all 5. modifier in PpP right out of sight; just down the road in the 6. submodifier in AdjP much too short; rather more interesting phrase 7. submodifier in AdvP (not) all that easily; far too often 8. post-modifier in AdjP quick enough; very beautiful indeed 9. post-modifier in AdvP quickly enough; nicely indeed; never again 10. post-modifier in NP the journey back; the way ahead complement in PpP over here; through there; from inside; till now In the enumeration in the table above, the most common syntactic roles of the adverbial phrase are 1 in the clause and 1 and 2 in the phrase. Many adverbs can function both as modifiers in phrases and as adverbials at clause level. In the clause He was totally satisfied with the party, totally is a premodifier for the head adjective satisfied, while in She totally agreed with him, totally is an adverb phrase functioning as an adverbial in the clause. When adverb phrases realize adverbials, they are frequently optional in the sense that they can be omitted without the clause becoming ungrammatical. 7.3.2. Definition and structure The adverb phrase (AdvP) is a phrase in which the head is an adverb. An adverb phrase may consist of one word (an adverb alone) or of two or more words. Mainly one-word adverb phrases modify adjectives (barely alive) or adverbs (very slowly). Adverb phrases (as forms) should not be mistaken for adverbials (as functions). The adverb phrase is a phrase (= a word or group of words which can fulfil a syntactic function in a clause), while the adverbial is a function that can be realized by adverb phrases, prepositional phrases and 3 Functions and examples 2 to 4 in clause and 3 to 10 in phrase are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, p. 509). adverbial clauses. Much like adjective phrases, adverb phrases (AdvP) may contain, besides the head, one or more modifiers. The modifiers (premodifiers/specifiers and postmodifiers/complements) in an adverb phrase are optional elements that are dependent on the head. They can all combine to form the following basic structures: (premodifier/specifier) head (postmodifier/complement) separately almost separately from him Semantically, most of the premodifiers are intensifiers that mark the degree of the characteristic expressed by an adjective or adverb. The most common intensifier is very. Premodifiers are usually realized by degree adverbs, while postmodifiers are typically realized by prepositional phrases or comparative clauses (She did not manage as smoothly as she had expected). Here are some examples of possible structures of adverb phrases: adverb phrase structure Example head separately premodifier + adverb almost separately adverb + postmodifier separately from him premodifier + adverb + postmodifier almost separately from him 7.4. The prepositional phrase 7.4.1. Definition and structure The prepositional phrase is a phrase consisting of a preposition followed normally by a noun phrase called either prepositional complement or object of the preposition. The structure following a preposition is called a ‘complement’ because it completes the meaning of the preposition, due to the semantic association between the preposition and the following NP. The same structure is also called the ‘object of the preposition’ because “a prepositional complement is ‘object territory’ and personal pronouns are therefore in the objective case” (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990, p. 188). The prepositional phrase is a structure with two parts, optionally preceded by a third one: (modifier/specifier) head complement/object into the car right towards her The head of a prepositional phrase is always a preposition, and, unlike the heads of all the other phrase types, it cannot occur by itself, without its complement. The preposition normally comes before its complement. Nevertheless, according to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005), in contemporary English, structures with stranded prepositions have become the rule (or at least a popular alternative) in the following situations: ✓ The stranding is obligatory when the prepositional complement becomes the subject of the clause. o Your case will soon be attended to. o The picture is worth looking at. ✓ In questions and relative clauses the prepositional complement may be a pronoun or adverb that is fronted. In that case, the preposition is normally stranded. o Where are you coming from? o I am the person (that) you are waiting for. [In relative clauses the pronoun may be omitted.] Note that in formal style the preposition is fronted with its complement. o For whom are you waiting? o I am the person for whom you are waiting. ✓ In passive structures, prepositions go with their verbs: o She likes to be looked at. o Carol was operated on last night. Note that even in a formal style, prepositions cannot be moved away from passive verbs: o In my family, money was never spoken about. (not …about money was never spoken) ✓ In infinitive structures, infinitive complements can have prepositions with them: o The village is pleasant to live in. o I’ve got lots of music to listen to. ✓ Even in very formal style, prepositions are not often put at the beginning of questions which have be as the main verb. o Who is it for, madam? (not For whom is it?) ✓ The structures where… to, what… like and what… for have a fixed order: o Where shall I send it to? (but not To where shall I send it?) o What does she look like? (but not Like what does she look?) Additionally, Swan (2005, pp. 453-4) lists a number of exceptions to the situations above. ✓ ‘common adverbial expressions’ consisting of preposition + NP (e.g. with great patience, in a temper) in which ‘the preposition is closely connected with the noun and is kept as near as possible to it. The preposition cannot usually be moved to the end of a clause. o I admired the patience with which she spoke. (not the patience she spoke with). ✓ During and since are not normally put at the end of clauses. o During which period did it happen? (not Which period did it happen during?) o Since when have you been working for her? (not When have you been working for her since?) The modifier is normally a degree adverb and it is the only optional element of a prepositional phrase. The prepositional complement is typically realized by a noun phrase, but it may also be realized by other word classes or phrases4. Adjective and adverb phrases as complements are uncommon and limited to certain set expressions such as at last, for good, for ever, etc. (see 4 and 5 below). prepositional complement Example 1. noun phrase at home, above the city 2. nominal relative clause from what I know 3. -ing clause before getting to you 4. adjective phrase at long last, for good, in private 5. adverb until very recently, ever since, for ever 6. preposition phrase except in here, from out of the forest 7. wh + to-inf. Cl Do you have any problems apart from where to stay? 7.4.2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases Prepositional phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They can actually realize every element of clause structure except the predicator, each illustrated with examples in the table below5. Syntactic function Example In the 1. adverbial She talked to him after the party. clause 2. subject After dark is the only good time for fireworks. 3. direct object I don’t consider next to a railway line a good place to live. 4. prepositional object Someone has been tampering with the scanner. 5. subject complement Monica must be out of her mind to reject such an interesting offer. object complement His illness left him without a job. In the 1. postmodifier in NP the tree in the garden phrase 2. complement in AdjP happy with his reaction, brilliant at gardening 3. complement in AdvP far from here 4. premodifier in NP an out-of-date report, off-the-record comments 5. complement in PpP except on Mondays The fact that the PpP realized as adverbial and the PpP realized as postmodifier in NP often occur in the same place in a clause may lead to ambiguity. Consequently, an example like I saw the man in the bus can be read either ‘I saw the man who was sitting in the bus’ or ‘I was in the bus and I saw the man’. PpPs have an ability to be embedded recursively in other PpPs or phrases. In other words, one unit is embedded in another, which is embedded in another, and so on, as in: A car accident [on the motorway [to Yorkshire]] (2006, p. 541). Another illustration is provided by Greenbaum and Nelson (2002: 89). In the clause There were variations in the degree of bitterness of taste, 4 Realizations and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, p. 536) 5 Functions and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (2006, pp. 541-2). embedding can be shown as follows: prepositional phrase in the degree of bitterness of taste noun phrase the degree of bitterness of taste prepositional phrase of bitterness of taste noun phrase bitterness of taste prepositional phrase of taste A last observation here is that two or more prepositional phrases that realize adverbials may appear independently and simultaneously in the same clause, as in the following example: At midnight (1) she secretly (2) eloped with her lover (3) to his lodgings (4). Further reading and video resources Macari, Ileana Oana, English Morpho-syntax – A view from Romanian, Casa Editoriala Demiurg Plus, Iași, 2021 Other phrases https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1NVC9Dij6U The structure of verb phrases https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4RMPQWGoXUs Exercises 7.1. Underline each adjective phrase. 1. Fragrant homemade bread is becoming common in many American homes. 2. In a recent sample, 30 per cent of the subscribers to a woman’s magazine said that they baked bread. 3. The first bread was patted by hand. 4. The early Egyptians added yeast and made conical, triangular, or spiral loaves as well as large, flat, open-centered disks. 7.2. Complete the sentences below by adding a post-modifier to the adjectives at the ends of the sentences. 1. No doubt you are aware _______________________ 2. My children are always happy _______________________ 3. It is sometimes possible _______________________ 4. They are sure _______________________ 7.3. Identify the function of each underlined adjective phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: prm (pre-modifier in noun phrase) pm (post-modifier in noun phrase) sC (subject complement) oC (object complement) 1. The former ( ) champion is now very ill ( ). 2. He has a rare ( ) viral ( ) infection. 3. The drugs he takes make him sick ( ). 7.4. Underline each adverb phrase. 1. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that has recently gained much attention. 2. Authorities are having difficulties finding locations where nuclear waste can be disposed of safely. 3. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the containers in which it is stored. 4. Because of this danger, many people have protested quite vehemently against the dumping of any waste in their communities. 7.5. Identify the function of each underlined adverb phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: A (adverbial) m adj (modifier of adjective) m adv (modifier of adverb) 1. Small forks first ( ) appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany. 2. They were widely ( ) condemned at the time. 3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly ( ) became fashionable. 4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly ( ) concave pieces of wood. 7.6. Underline each prepositional phrase and circle each preposition. If a prepositional phrase is embedded within another prepositional phrase, underline it twice. 1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu Chinese writings. 2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles. 3. The Swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation by manipulation. 4. Its value is recognized by many doctors. 5. Some doctors refer to massage as manipulative medicine. 7.7. Rewrite the sentences below, moving prepositions to alternative positions that they can occur in. You may need to make some consequent changes. 1. The secretary is the person who you should send your application to. 2. Relativity is a theory on which many modern theories in physics are based. 3. Who are you writing to? 4. This article is one that researchers in economics often make reference to. 7.8. Identify the function of each underlined prepositional phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it: pn (post-modifier of a noun) padj (post-modifier of an adjective) A (adverbial) 1. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money ( ) if they want to get elected. 2. A candidate can no longer win with little campaign money ( ). 3. Candidates are keenly aware of the need for huge financial contributions ( ). 4. They need the money to employ staff and for the frequent advertisements they run on television ( ).  5. In recent campaigns ( ), television advertisements have been quite belligerent. 7.9. Indicate the elements that make up the italicized VP in: a. The draft list of questions is representative of issues the audience will be interested in. b. You are not only assessing their writing strengths, but also their style and perspective. c. He has long been asked for the names and contact information of those people. d. Once you have selected the format of your paper, create an agenda with specific time frames. e. By creating some ground rules, you will be able to maintain control over the situation. f. Keep your answers crisp and concise. g. Do you have anything new to say? h. If you are introducing these two students, create a short bio for each. i. You won’t have time to read this book word for word. j. The first question should be designed for everyone in the audience. 7.10. What is the difference between the underlined words in the following pairs? A. I have a book with me. – I have worked here for 20 years. B. That man is Jack’s co-worker. – That man may be working too hard. 7.11. Construct sentences that conform to the following patterns: e.g., S: NP (determiner + H) – V:VP (main verb) – sC: NP (determiner + premodifier + H + postmodifier: PpP) This piece is another fine example of his artistry. a) S: that-clause – V: VP (perfect auxiliary + main verb) – sC: AdjP (premodifier + H) b) S: NP (determiner + H + postmodifier: PpP) – V: VP (main verb) – sC: to-infinitive clause c) S: NP (H + postmodifier: -ed participle clause) – V: VP (main verb) – dO: NP (determiner + premodifier + H + postmodifier