Cognition: Week 4 Lecture PDF

PSYC21081 &21181 Cognition: Week 4 Last week: Semantic Memory Overview Retrieval process and factors that affects it = Asynchronous content Retrieval Tasks The role of contextual cues Recognition memory  Asynchronous content HOW DO WE RE TRIE...

PSYC21081 &21181 Cognition: Week 4 Last week: Semantic Memory Overview Retrieval process and factors that affects it = Asynchronous content Retrieval Tasks The role of contextual cues Recognition memory  Asynchronous content HOW DO WE RE TRIE VE ? The retrieval process  Retrieval Process Retrieval: Retrieval Cues: ▪ A progression from one or ▪ Bits of information about the target more retrieval cues to a target memory that guide the search memory trace through associative connections ▪ The aim is to make the target Associations: available ▪ Bonds that link together items in et memory targ Target Memory Trace: ▪ Vary in strength cuesa ▪ The particular memory we are searching for -links Association Cue Target will be able to retrieve information If association is strong , you well- · If association is weak, you will not retrieve information well. Spreading Activation Activation Level: Spreading Activation: ▪The internal state of a memory, reflecting its ▪ The automatic transmission of “energy” from level of excitement one memory to related items via associations ▪Determines accessibility of the item ▪ Proportional to the strength of connections ▪Increases when: Something related to the memory is encountered ▪Persists for some time  Spreading Activation & Pattern Completion I cues Peas target [ -related Wife “Dinner” dinner to E activates a Overcook ed dinner Mashed relate activities potatoes Events of the day Pattern completion o Retrieval: reinstatement (via spreading activation) of features that represent a memory o Features, provided as cues, will spread activation to other features, completing the missing components o Pattern completion = the process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement of a memory o Pattern completion is regarded as a hippocampal mechanism Pattern Completion and “the memory of the dinner event” Peas Wife “Dinner” Overcook ed Mashed potatoes Events of the day RE TRIE VA L Factors Factors Determining Retrieval Success All related to the relationship between cues and target memory 1. Attention to cues o Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to guide retrieval o Dividing attention task: ◦ During retrieval: Reduces memory performance, if secondary task is: ◦ Related to the primary task ◦ Demands a lot of attention Failing to note what word (e.g. “WATER”) you’re supposed to translate into Spanish impairs your ability to recall (“AGUA”). Dividing attention Fernandes and Moscovitch (2000, 2003) Task 1: ◦ Recall (or recognise) lists of words presented auditorily Task 2: ◦ Make judgments about visually presented items, which were either: ◦ Words ◦ Pictures ◦ Numbers  Dividing attention Fernandes and Moscovitch (2000, 2003) Results: ◦ Completing Task 2 reduced Task 1 performance by 30– 50% ◦ Interference was greater when Task 2 items were words ◦ Larger effect when tested with recall than recognition  2. Relevance of cues o Retrieval cues are most effective when they are strongly related to the target ◦ Encoding specificity principle: ◦ Retrieval cues are most useful if: ◦ present at encoding ◦ encoded with the target ◦ similar to the original cue available at encoding The cue “EAU” isn’t useful in retrieving the Spanish translation, if o Having the right cues enhances retrieval – the best cues are you don’t know that “EAU” is French the ones present at encoding encoding specificity. for “WATER.” 3. Cue-target associative strength o Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association ◦ Determined by the length of time and attention spent on encoding the relationship ◦ Encoding the cue and the target separately is unhelpful ◦They need to be associated with each other! Being only vaguely familiar with the link between “WATER” and “AGUA” (represented by the dotted arrow) limits its usefulness as a cue. 3. Cue-target associative strength o Retrieval success depends on the strength of cue-target association ◦ Determined by the length of time and attention spent on encoding the relationship ◦ Encoding the cue and the target separately is unhelpful ◦They need to be associated with each other! Being only vaguely familiar with the link between “WATER” and ◦e.g. face-name association: “AGUA” (represented by the dotted arrow) limits its usefulness as a cue. Face Name  4. Number of cues o Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates retrieval ◦ Activation spreads from both cues to the target, facilitating retrieval ◦ Dual-cuing: ◦ Cueing multiple access routes to a target (extra cues) can provide a super-additive recall benefit ◦ Elaborative encoding maximizes the number of retrieval An extra hint, like the first letter of the routes target word, facilitates retrieval. ◦ e.g. Rubin and Wallace (1989): … … Mythical Mythical POST POST being … … being Ghost Ghost Ghost 97% 14% 19%  5. Strength of target memory o Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to retrieve ◦ The targets start at a lower activation level ◦ Require a greater boost in activation to be retrieved ◦ Explains the word frequency effect on recall: Having only a weak representation of ◦ More frequent target words start with higher “AGUA” limits your ability to retrieve it, activation level more easily retrieved even when presented with a strong cue. 6. Retrieval strategy o Retrieval success is increased by: ◦ The organization of materials at encoding ◦ Adopting efficient strategies of memory search ◦ Adopting a new perspective/strategy can facilitate recall of different objects Recalling all sorts of Spanish previously forgotten beverages until you stumble upon the target word 7. Retrieval mode ◦ Frame of mind allows interpreting environmental stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide subsequent retrieval ◦ Herron and Wilding’s (2006) ERP study: ◦ Having multiple episodic tasks in a row gradually improves performance ◦ Episodic retrieval implicated different brain Encountering a stimulus without the regions (prefrontal cortex) than semantic intention to retrieve the target from judgments memory, reduces the probability of eliciting the target. ◦ It takes time to fully adopt the retrieval mode ◦ BUT Involuntary episodic retrieval (something “springs to mind”).  Factors Determining Retrieval Success Factor Explanation Example: Retrieve Spanish word for “WATER” 1. Attention to cues Reduced attention to a cue impairs its ability to Failing to note what word (e.g. “WATER”) you’re guide retrieval supposed to translate into Spanish impairs your ability to recall (“AGUA”). 2. Relevance of cues Retrieval cues are most effective when they are The cue “EAU” isn’t useful in retrieving the strongly related to the target (e.g., were present Spanish translation, if you don’t know that “EAU” is French for “WATER.” at encoding) 3. Cue-target associative strength Retrieval success depends on the strength of Being only vaguely familiar with the link between cue-target association “WATER” and “AGUA” limits its usefulness as a cue. 4. Number of cues Access to additional, relevant cues facilitates An extra hint, like the first letter of the target word, retrieval (such as elaborative encoding) facilitates retrieval. 5. Strength of target memory Weakly encoded targets are more difficult to Having only a weak representation of “AGUA” retrieve limits your ability to retrieve it, even when presented with a strong cue. 6. Retrieval strategy Retrieval success is increased by: Recalling all sorts of Spanish beverages until you -The organization of materials at encoding stumble upon the target word -Adopting efficient strategies of memory search 7. Retrieval mode Frame of mind allows interpreting environmental Encountering a stimulus (e.g., pouring water) stimuli as episodic memory cues to guide without the intention to retrieve the target from memory, reduces the probability of eliciting the subsequent retrieval target.  A ND TH E S PECIFI CITY OF CU ES Retrieval tasks Name Harry Potter Characters Easier with the picture?  Harry Potter: Recognition Task Which of the following are characters from Harry Potter? = Harry Potter to You are tryingwhich Ludo Bagman Cuthbert Binns Characters differentiate from Hermione Granger Ron Weasley characters are Potter & Lord Voldemort Albus Dumbledore Harry not which are Draco Malfoy Morfin Gaunt Bilbo Baggins Thorin Oakenshield Severus Snape Belladonna Took Philip Marlowe Rubeus Hagrid  Retrieval Tasks Direct/Explicit Memory Tests Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests ▪ Ask people to recall particular experiences ▪ Measure the unconscious influence of experience without asking the subject ▪ Require a contextual cue to recall the past ▪ Reveal impaired performance in amnesics ▪ Priming: Recent experience with the ▪ In many cases rely on hippocampus stimulus improves performance ▪ Reveal normal performance in with amnesia perform People amnesics. personexperiencing apaiae a better in implicit tasks. ↳  Retrieval Tasks Test Type Example Free Recall Explicit “Recall studied items” Ast Cued Recall Explicit “What word was presented with DOG?” task Yes/No Recognition Explicit “Did you study: DOG….APPLE….MONK?” Forced-Choice Recognition Explicit “Which word did you study: APPLE or MONK?” Stem Completion Implicit “Fill in missing letters with a word that fits: MO_ _.” anask Fragment Completion Implicit “Fill in letters to make a word: A_P_E.” Conceptual Fluency Implicit “Name as many birds” F If the words has already been studied before the 2nd taskamnesia then , participants' response is much quicker. This is the same for.  retrieval Contextual cues = important for memory. Specify conditions under which a stimulus was encoded Type of cue Definition Example external, Spatio- Location and time cues during an Supermarket; Temporal/Environmental event Lecture theatre Mood Emotional state that one was in Sad; happy Jinternal during the event Physiological Physical (pharmacological) state Tired; drunk one was in during an event Cognitive Collection of concepts one has Specific thought thought about the event Context-Dependent Memory Memory is context-dependent Context reinstates original encoding environment and facilitates retrieval Principle of encoding specificity: we encode information along with its context Context-dependent memory: Environmental factors Gooden and Baddeley (1975): Task: ▪Taught divers word pairs in one of two contexts: dry land or underwater ▪Tested cued recall in same or different environment Context-dependent memory: Environmental factors a learnedunderwater i words best - water Results: ▪ Material is recalled best in the environment it was learned. ↳ words learned was best on on Land. land Context-dependent memory: Environmental factors Grant et al. 1998 Is it better to study in noisy or quite environments? What about the match between encoding and test?  Context-dependent memory: Environmental factors Grant et al. 1998 when - studied something was When something - in a quiet studied sement, environment it was was , i best to be tested in no bette a quiet one. to be tested at a noisy. environment Better performance Better performance ▷Participants did better when the testing condition matched the study condition u Adapted from: Grant, H., et al. (1998). Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617–623; Figure from Goldstein,E.B. (2015). Cognitive Psychology. 4th Edition  ▪ Like context-dependent but relating to internal State- state/environment Dependent ▪ Recall depends on the match between the Memory participants’ internal environment (i.e. physiological state) at encoding and retrieval.  ▪ Recall is best if encoding and retrieval both occur when: State- ▪ Drunk (Goodwin et al., 1969) Dependent ▪ Under the influence of marijuana or caffeine (Eich, 1980) Memory ▪ Under the influence of exercising or at rest (Miles & Hardman, 1998) ▪ State dependency disappears under recognition tests drunk ,the If you lost keys whilst being · your are if you're best way to find your keys drunk again the next day.  ▪ Mood-Dependent Memory: about the person/person match Mood- ▪ Recall is dependent on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval. Dependent ▪ Mood-Congruent Memory: about the person/item match Mood- Congruent ▪ It is easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person Memory ▪ Depressed individuals are likely to recall mostly unpleasant memories  ▪ Mood-Dependent Memory: about the person/person match Mood- ▪ Recall is dependent on the match in mood states between encoding and retrieval. Dependent ▪ Mood-Congruent Memory: about the person/item match Mood- Congruent ▪ It is easier to recall events that have an emotional tone that matches the current mood of the person Memory ▪ Depressed individuals are likely to recall mostly unpleasant memories  Mood-Dependent Memory ▪ Eich, Macaulay, and Ryan (1994) Results: ▪ Free recall was vastly improved when Task: mood states matched. ▪ Encoding: pleasant or unpleasant mood when is happy studied, ▪ Test: two days later, same or opposite they perform mood prior to recall ↑ better when happy. Y when sad is studied , better performance they do a for sad. Figure from Goldstein,E.B. (2015). Cognitive Psychology. 4 th Edition Cognitive Context-Dependent Memory Retrieval is better if the same cognitive features/tasks are involved Ideas, thoughts and concepts that occupied our attention Memory facilitated when cognitive context at encoding matches retrieval  Cognitive Context-dependent memory Marian and Neisser’s (2000) bilingual study ▪ Task: Memory cues/interviews were provided in either Russian or English Participants asked to recall life events from any period  Cognitive Context-dependent memory Marian and Neisser’s (2000) bilingual study ▷ Memories are easier to access when retrieval takes place in the same language mode as they were encoded. Retrieved memories are not entirely intact “Figure out” some aspects of the recalled experience Memory is reconstructive Reconstructive memory: inferential aspect of memory Sulin and Dooling (1974) study with Gerald Martin (unknown) or Adolf Hitler ME AS U RE S & T HEORIE S Recognition memory  Recognition Memory ▪ Decide whether one encountered a stimulus before OLD or NEW ▪ Presents the stimulus (i.e. target), unlike in recall. ▪ Discrimination between OLD and NEW stimuli. ▪ Old = studied stimuli. ▪ New = non-studied distractors, lures, or foils. ▪ A measure of the participants’ level of guessing and decision-making bias for accepting items as old.  Recognition Memory Signal Detection Theory (SDT) = every time youmakeadecision a , bou et - ▪ SDT to understand and explore recognition memory decisions Signal Background ▪ Developed from auditory perception Noise ▪ Auditory task: ▪ Detect a tone (signal) presented against background noise. ▪ Hard or easy to detect.  Recognition Memory Signal Detection Theory Outcome Matrix is ↓ target sound is present soundonse target , The say yes then Stimulus and respis and they If sentont it they hits it X Present Absent correct 1 abarticip P tre Warm response) Participant’s. “Yes” Hit False alarm is yesise Response a Correct “No” Miss rejection sound is target t paci If the absent the - > If target the sound Y is present and they say a nd no , they missed it Recognition Memory Signal Detection Theory ▪ New or old ? Equivalent to signal vs noise ▪ How the old stimuli discriminated from the new Stimulus of Old New (foil) G “Old” Hit False alarm Participant’s Response O “New” Miss Correct rejection Recognition Memory Signal Detection Theory Stimulus Old New (foil) Participant’s “Old” Hit False alarm Response Correct “New” Miss rejection  ▪ STD useful to understand how recognition decisions are taken + how to discriminate true memory from guesses ▪ Memory traces have strength values. These dictate how ”familiar” a stimulus feels ▪ The traces vary in their familiarity based on: attention at encoding and repetitions STD in ▪ New and old items are combined in a recognition task each each having their own distribution on a familiarity Recognition continuum memory ▪ New items are less familiar than old items. But distractors can be quite familiar e.g., they appear often or are similar to old items ▪ Therefore, the two distributions can overlap. ▪ Response criterion: Items that surpass this are judged old. Can be more liberal or strict.  SDT in Recognition memory increased loweiariy an familiarity but may it contain & - familiara so wey overlap I sections correc Everything more familiar than (to the right of) the ▪ Correct rejections (in green) response criterion (β) will be judged “old” ▪ False alarms (in red) Everything less familiar (i.e. to the left of β) will be judged “new.” ▪ Hits (in green) ▪ Misses (in red)  SDT and Dual-Process theory § SDT cannot account for all recognition memory phenomena Recognition § Word frequency effect: Low frequency words are better recognised (although high frequency words are better Memory recalled!). § SDT incorrectly predicts low-frequency words should be less familiar low frea words better : recognised words better recalled. High frea =  Dual-Process theory § Recognition memory is based on two types of memory or processes (Mandler, 1980): § Familiarity: § A sense of memory without being able to remember contextual Recognition information Memory § Described by signal detection § Faster and more automatic § Recollection: § Retrieving contextual details about a stimulus - like cued recall § Slower and more attention demanding Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory OLD or NEW ? Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory OLD Familiarity Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory OLD Familiarity No recall Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory TV OLD Recollection Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory TV Mr Bean OLD Recollection Recognition Memory: Dual-process theory TV Mr Bean OLD Recollection cued recall Recognition Memory: Measuring Remember/Know Procedure (Tulving, 1985) Participants decide Remember the item being presented previously: §Recollect contextual details §Measure of recollection Know it was presented previously: § Seems familiar § Measure of familiarity Memory can fail because retrieval fails Retrieval success is determined by the relationship between cues and target memories Summary: Tested using explicit (direct) tests or implicit (indirect) tests Context at retrieval and the degree of match to encoding context has major impact on retrieval success Retrieval Recognition memory: familiarity and recollection Brain systems for F&R? Hippocampus = recall/recollection More on this next semester – Cognitive Neuroscience This week’s reading Baddley, Eyesenck, Anderson (2020). Memory. Chapter 8 (pages 237 – 267)