Lecture 2 Theories of Leadership N. PDF

Theories of Leadership Scope Great Man Theory Trait Theory Managerial Grid Pygmalion Effect Golem Effect  Theories of Leadership Theory refers to assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts. It attempts to provide a reasonable or rational explanation of cause-and...

Theories of Leadership Scope Great Man Theory Trait Theory Managerial Grid Pygmalion Effect Golem Effect  Theories of Leadership Theory refers to assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts. It attempts to provide a reasonable or rational explanation of cause-and-effect (causal) relationships among a group of observed phenomenon. The word originated from the Greek word ”thorós”, meaning a spectator and stresses a fact. All theories are mental models (images, beliefs, ideas) and verbal descriptions we consciously or unconsciously form from experiences that guide the thoughts and actions.  Great Man Theory The basic tenet of the great man theory of leadership is summed up in the phrase, “Great leaders are born, and not made”. It suggests that the capacity for leadership is inborn, so you are either a natural born leader or not, according to the theory. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of as male quality, especially military leadership.  History of Great Man Theory This theory became popular during the 19th-century. The myth (tradition, legend) behind some of the world's most famous leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, Hercules, Goliath, Samson, Arnold and Alexander the Great, etc. These leaders contributed to the notion that great leaders are born and not made. In many examples, it was as if the right man for the job seemed to emerge almost mystically to take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success— King Tackie Komey, Yaa Asantewa, Kwame Nkrumah etc.  History of Great Man Theory Thomas Carlyle in 1840s had a major influence on this theory of leadership by his writings. He once stated that the history of the world is all about the biographies of great men. Thomas Carlyle said effective leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics.  History of Great Man Theory These great men were believed to be born with the necessary attributes that set them apart from others. The traits of the great men are responsible for their positions of power and authority. One of the main reasons for evolution of this theory was that in those times people of a lesser social status had fewer opportunities to practice and achieve leadership roles.  Criticisms Hebert Spencer a Sociologist in the 1860s advanced this criticism. He posits that Leaders were products of the society in which they lived like the United States of America/ Ga Kings/Asantes. The actions of such great leaders would be impossible without the social conditions built before their lifetime. For example, a scholarly follower of the Great Man theory is likely to study the Second World War by focusing on the big personalities of the conflict.  The Trait Theory In the early 20th century, leadership traits were studied to determine what made certain people great leaders. Scholars focused on identifying the innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders. It was believed that people were born with certain traits, and that only the “great” people possess it.  The Trait Theory This theory emerged during the 20th century based on some argued qualities that leaders should have to be great politicians, religious leaders, or army leaders. The quest to find some set of characteristics shared by leaders led to the traits theory (Northouse, 2004). All the leadership studies focused on a set of personal characteristics that define a great leader.  The Trait Theory Traits refer to recurring regularities or trends in a person’s behaviour. The trait approach to personality maintains that people’s behaviours are influenced by the strengths of the traits they possess. Although some traits cannot be seen, they can be inferred from consistent patterns of behaviour and reliably measured by personality inventories.  The Trait Theory Certain set of core traits of successful leaders were identified through research. The traits are not used as yardstick in determining whether a person will be a successful leader or not, they are basically seen as preconditions that bestow people with leadership potential.  The Trait Theory Below are the traits associated with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness: 1 physiological Appearance Height weight 2 Demographic Age Education Socioeconomic background  The Trait Theory 3 Personality/Persona Self-confidence Aggressiveness 4 Intellective Intelligence Decisiveness Judgement knowledge 5 Task-related Achievement drive Initiative Persistence 6 Social characteristics Affability Cooperativeness  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Stogdill (1948) Intelligence Alertness Insight Responsibility Initiative Persistence Self-confidence Sociability  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Mann (1959) Intelligence Masculinity Adjustment Dominance Extraversion Conservatism  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Stogdill (1974) Achievement Persistence Insight Initiative Self-confidence Responsibility Cooperativeness Tolerance Influence Sociability  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Lord, DeVader, and Alliger (1986) Intelligence Masculinity Dominance  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) Drive Motivation Integrity Confidence Cognitive Ability Task Knowledge  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004) Cognitive abilities Extraversion Conscientiousness Emotional stability Openness Agreeableness Motivation Social intelligence Self-monitoring Intelligence Problem solving  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004) Intelligence Leaders tend to have higher intelligence than non-leaders. This includes strong verbal ability, perceptual ability, and reasoning appears to make one a better leader. (Steve Jobs, founder and CEO of Apple who died in 2011.) Self-confidence Self-confidence is the ability to be certain about one’s competencies and skills. It includes a sense of self-esteem and self-assurance and the belief that one can make a difference. When Jobs described the devices he wanted to create, many people doubted.  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004) Determination Determination is the desire to get the job done. It includes, initiative, persistence, dominance, and drive. People with determination are willing to assert themselves, are proactive, and have the capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles. Integrity Integrity is the quality of honesty and trustworthiness. People who adhere to a strong set of principles and take responsibility for their actions. Leaders with integrity inspire confidence in others because they can be trusted to do what they say they are going to do.  Studies of Leadership Traits and Characteristics Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004) Sociability Sociability is a leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant social relationships. Leaders who show sociability are friendly, outgoing, courteous, tactful, and diplomatic. Social leaders have good interpersonal skills and create cooperative relationships with their followers.  Criticisms Some researchers challenged the universality of leadership traits. Stogdill (1948) opines that no consistent set of traits differentiated leaders from non-leaders across a variety of situations. Alliger (1986) found that traits were strongly associated with individuals 'perceptions of leadership. Similarly, Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) claim that effective leaders are actually distinct types of people in several key respects.  General Criticisms The failure of the trait approach to delimit a definitive list of leadership traits. The list of traits that has emerged appears endless. It has failed to take situations into account. People who possess certain traits that make them leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another situation. There is highly subjective determination of the most important leadership traits. The traits are based on authors’ subjective experience and observations. It has also been criticized for failing to look at traits in relationship to leadership outcomes. For instance, how leadership traits affect group members and their work.  Limitations If particular, traits are key features of leadership. How do we explain people who possess those qualities and yet are not in leadership positions?. There are many people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never sought positions in leadership. The list of possible traits tends to be very long. Different traits of successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified making it difficult to generalize. The problem with trait theory is that there is no universally accepted trait of an effective leader.  Limitations The model attempts to relate physical traits such as height and weight to effective leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader. Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) The purpose of this questionnaire is to measure personal characteristics of leadership. The leader and five people who are familiar with the leader should complete the questionnaire. Make five copies of this questionnaire. This questionnaire should be completed by you and five people you know (e.g., roommates, coworkers, relatives, friends). Using the following scale, have each individual indicate the degree to which he or she agrees or disagrees with each of the 14 statements below: Do not forget to complete one for yourself. (leader’s name) is Key: 1 = Strongly agree 2 = Disagree 3 = Neutral 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly disagree Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ) 1. Articulate: Communicates effectively with others 1 2 3 4 5 2. Perceptive: Is discerning and insightful 1 2 3 4 5 3. Self-confident: Believes in himself/herself and his/her ability 1 2 3 4 5 4. Self-assured: Is secure with self, free of doubts 1 2 3 4 5 5. Persistent: Stays fixed on the goals, despite interference 1 2 3 4 5 6. Determined: Takes a firm stand, acts with certainty 1 2 3 4 5 7. Trustworthy: Is authentic and inspires confidence 1 2 3 4 5 8. Dependable: Is consistent and reliable 1 2 3 4 5 9. Friendly: Shows kindness and warmth 1 2 3 4 5 10. Outgoing: Talks freely, gets along well with others 1 2 3 4 5 11. Conscientious: Is thorough, organized, and controlled 1 2 3 4 5 12. Diligent: Is persistent, hardworking 1 2 3 4 5 13. Sensitive: Shows tolerance, is tactful and sympathetic 1 2 3 4 5 14. Empathic: Understands others, identifies with others 1 2 3 4 5  Managerial (Leadership) Grid This model first appeared in the early 1960s and has been refined and revised several times (Blake & McCanse, 1991; Blake & Mouton, 1964, 1978, 1985). It is a model that has been used extensively in organizational training and development. The Managerial Grid, which has been renamed the Leadership Grid, was designed to explain how leaders help organizations to reach their purposes through two factors: concern for production and Concern for people.  Managerial (Leadership) Grid The managerial grid is a leadership style developed by Blake and Mouton in 1964. The managerial grid was developed after two research studies from Ohio State and Michigan Universities. The grid combines concern for production with concern for people and presents five alternative behavioral styles of leadership. Managerial (Leadership) Grid  The Indifferent or Impoverished (1,1) These leaders have minimal concern for people and production. Their priority is to fly under the radar while they look for solutions that will not bring any negative focus to themselves or their department. The concern for such leaders is to preserve their employment and position as well as their seniority. They are ineffective and lack any of the traits that can be attributed to successful and effective leadership  The Indifferent or Impoverished (1,1) Impact on employee includes: Employees have a high degree of dissatisfaction No harmony within the group High turnover Impact on organization: Inefficient operation Negative results  The Country Club/Accommodating (1,9) The accommodating (country club) management style (1,9) yield and comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance. Impact on employees: Employees are Happy Good team harmony Impact on organization: Low productivity  Authority Compliance Dictatorial (9,1) The dictatorial (produce or perish) style (9,1) characterized by control and dominance. High concern for production, and a low concern for people. Managers using this style find employee needs unimportant. They provide their employees with money and expect performance in return. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals. Impact on employees: Employees experience a high level of dissatisfaction High level of conflict within the group Impact on organization: High employee turnover Peak performance is short lived  Middle of the Road Management Status Quo (5,5) The status quo (middle-of-the-road) style (5,5) balance and compromise. Managers using this style try to balance between company goals and workers' needs. Concern to both people and production. Managers who use this style hope to achieve suitable performance but doing so gives away a bit of each concern so that production and people needs can be met. Impact on employees: Employees are not really discontent nor are they happy Good harmony within the group Impact on organization: Average performance  Sound or Team Management ( 9,9) The sound (team style) (9,9) contributes and commits. High attention is paid to both people and production. Leaders who choose this style encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. This method relies heavily on making employees feel that they are constructive parts of the company. Impact on employees: Employees form high cohesive team Employees are satisfied Employees are motivated to work as a team Impact on organization: Low employee turnover Attracts highly skilled employees Efficient organization  Pygmalion Theory The Pygmalion effect is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where once you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a leader raises an expectation about the performance of workers which actually results in an increase in worker performance. The theory holds that as a leader simply holds positive expectations about team members, that expectation can actually lead to better team performance.  Pygmalion Theory Outcomes are based on what we expect and this is known as the self-fulfilling prophecy or the Pygmalion effect. Research has clearly established that employees (followers) have a greater level of success when their managers (leaders) expect more of them. When a leader believes that employees are high producers and treat them as high producers, they tend to become high producers.  Golem Effect The Golem Effect is a psychological phenomenon in which lower expectations placed upon individuals either by supervisors or the individual themselves lead to poorer performance by the individual. This effect is mostly seen and studied in educational and organizational environments. Managers who contribute to the Golem effect believe that certain employees lack the skills, potential or willingness to succeed. This leads to a change in leadership style, where managers may: Set more explicit targets and deadlines Assign more routine tasks Monitor employees on a regular basis Emphasize operational concerns instead of strategic ones  Golem Effect The Golem Effect’s negative consequences are substantial. It may cause: Lack of employee self-trust and self-confidence Lack of employee trust in peers and superiors Disregarded ideas Discouraging responsibility Lower productivity Increased chances of employees behaving opportunistically Lack of encouragement of innovative problem solving At worst, employees who fall victim to the Golem Effect may choose to leave their positions or companies, ending a problematic and unsustainable situation.  Summary ❖ Theories of leadership attempt to explain how certain individuals emerge as effective leaders. ❖ The Great Man Theory posits that leadership traits are innate, suggesting that leaders are born, not made, while the Trait Theory identifies specific characteristics that are believed to make great leaders. ❖ The Managerial Grid outlines different leadership styles based on concern for production and people, highlighting the balance between the two for effective leadership. ❖ The Pygmalion Effect describes how leaders' high expectations can lead to improved employee performance, whereas the Golem Effect illustrates how low expectations can lead to poorer outcomes. THANK YOU  ACTIVITITY ON LMS You are to watch the attached video on the LMS under week 3 and answer the question that follows.