PSYC 2012 Lecture 2: Birth & Infancy PDF

9/9/2024 PSYC 2012 Lecture 2: Birth & Infancy The First Two Years “The birth of all things are weak and tender, and therefore,...

9/9/2024 PSYC 2012 Lecture 2: Birth & Infancy The First Two Years “The birth of all things are weak and tender, and therefore, our eyes should be intent on beginnings.” Montaigne 1 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this session you will be able to:  Explain the Birthing Process  Describe Physical Growth and Development in Infancy  Explain the Sleep/Wakefulness States  Assess Motor Development during Infancy  Explain Sensory and Perceptual Development during Infancy  Identify the Language Milestones during Infancy  Briefly explain Socio-emotional and Personality Development during infancy 2 2 STAGES OF THE BIRTH PROCESS What is birth/birthing process? Three stages of the birthing process: Third stage of First stage of Second stage of labour – Labour Labour - Delivery Afterbirth 3 3 1  9/9/2024 STAGES OF THE BIRTH PROCESS First stage of Labour  This is the first stage in the birthing process and it is the longest stage. It can last an average of 6 to 12 hours.  However, the duration depends on several factors: the age of the mother, number of prior pregnancies and potential complications of the pregnancy.  Either at the beginning of the labour or during it, the amniotic sac that surrounds and cushions the fetus ruptures, releasing the amniotic fluid. 4 4 STAGES OF THE BIRTH PROCESS First stage of Labour Con’t  This “water breaking” is usually the first sign of impending labour.  During labour uterine contractions occur causing the process of effacement, (i.e. thinning and drawing up) and dilation (opening) of the women’s cervix in order to push the infant downward into the birthing canal (the vagina). 5 5 STAGES OF THE BIRTH PROCESS Second stage of labour/delivery  This is the phase of pushing the baby out.  Begins once the fetus’ head and body begins to move through the birthing canal and terminates when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body.  This stage lasts approximately up to 30 to 80 minutes. 6 6 2  9/9/2024 STAGES OF THE BIRTH PROCESS Third stage of labour  At this stage the placenta, umbilical cord and other membranes are detached and expelled – afterbirth.  Shortest stage and lasts only minutes 7 7 THE BIRTH PROCESS Potential problems at birth: Anoxia is a lack of sufficient oxygen to the brain that may result in neurological damage or death Premature birth-babies weigh less than 5 ½ pounds and earlier than the 38th week of gestation. Low birth weight- Two types of low-birth weight babies- Preterm babies and Small for date. Preterm babies-born more than 3 weeks before their due date. Small for date - have experienced low growth as fetuses and are seriously underweight even when close to their normal due dates. 8 8 9 9 3  9/9/2024 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Patterns of Growth:  Cephalocaudal Pattern: Developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top with physical growth and differentiation of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom  Proximodistal Pattern: Sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities 10 10 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY Height and Weight The Brain: Average newborn is 19- Contains approximately 21 inches long and 7 ½ 100 billion neurons at pounds birth At 2 years of age, Extensive brain infants weigh 26 to 32 development continues pounds and are nearly after birth, through half their adult height. infancy, and later. At birth, the brain is 25% of its adult weight; at 2 years of age, it is 75% of its adult weight 11 11 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY  The Brain Brain development affects all areas of a child's growth. There are four main areas of development: motor (physical), language and communication, social and emotional, and cognitive Changes in Neurons Continued myelination Connectivity among neurons increases Changes in the Region of Brain Blooming and pruning vary by brain region Peak of synaptic overproduction in the visual cortex followed by a gradual retraction Heredity and environment influence the timing and course Pace of myelination varies 12 12 4  9/9/2024 DISCUSSION What are the main factors that affect Brain Development in Infants? 13 13 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY 14 14 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY ▪ Sleep ▪ Typical newborn sleeps 16-18 hours per day (Iglowstein et al., 2002) ▪ By 4 weeks the average baby sleeps 14 hours per day ▪ Infants vary in their preferred times for sleeping ▪ Most common infant sleep-related problem is night waking Consistently linked to excessive parental involvement in sleep-related interactions with their infant 15 15 5  9/9/2024 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY  Sleep  Shared Sleeping  Varies from culture to culture  American Academy of Pediatrics discourages shared sleeping  Potential benefits: ▪ Promotes breast feeding and a quicker response to crying ▪ Allows mother to detect potentially dangerous breathing pauses in baby  Raised concerns because bed-sharing with an infant increases the risk sleep-related deaths, including sudden infant death syndrome 16 16 PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY ▪ Sleep/Wake states: ▪ Regular sleep – eyes are closed and respiration regular ▪ Irregular sleep – eyes are closed – REM (rapid eye movement) limb movement and facial grimaces ▪ Drowsiness – infant is falling asleep or waking up but general inactivity ▪ Alert inactivity – infant’s eyes have a bright quality and pursue moving objects ▪ Waking activity – infant engages in diffuse motor activity involving the whole body, may become fussy ▪ Distress- characterized by intense crying and motor activity 17 17 Which state of infant sleep/wakefulness do you think is optimal for learning and interacting with others? 18 18 6  9/9/2024 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 19 19 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ The Dynamic Systems View: ▪ Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting Motor skills represent solutions to goals ▪ Development is an active process in which nature and nurture work together as part of an ever-changing system ▪ Motor development follows the cephalocaudal principle ▪ Motor behaviour is displayed in rhythmic patterns 20 20 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ Gross Motor Skills: large-muscle activities ▪ The Development of Posture Posture – a dynamic process linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, and muscles, which tell us where we are in space ▪ Learning to Walk Occurs about the time of their first birthday Infants learn what kinds of places and surfaces are safe for locomotion 21 21 7  9/9/2024 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ Gross Motor Skills: large-muscle activities ▪ The First Year: Motor Development Milestones and Variations Some milestones vary by as much as two to four months Experience can modify the onset of motor accomplishments Some infants do not follow the standard sequence of motor development 22 22 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 23 23 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ Gross Motor Skills ▪ Development in the Second Year Toddlers become more skilled and mobile By 13-18 months, toddlers can pull a toy or climb stairs; by 18-24 months, toddlers can walk quickly, balance on their feet, walk backward and stand and kick a ball ▪ Even when motor activity is restricted, many infants reach motor milestones at a normal age 24 24 8  9/9/2024 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT ▪ Fine Motor Skills: finely tuned movements ▪ Using a spoon, buttoning a shirt, reaching and grasping ▪ Palmer grasp: grasping with the whole hand ▪ Pincer grip: grasping with the thumb and forefinger 25 25 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT  What are Sensation and Perception? ▪ Sensation: Occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors Eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin ▪ Perception: Interpretation of what is sensed ▪ Several research methods used to study the infant’s sensory and perceptual experiences: Visual/Preference Habituation-dishabituation Method of evoked potentials High-amplitude sucking 26 26 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Visual Preference Habituation-Dishabituation 27 27 9  9/9/2024 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ba ba ba ba ba ba ba ba pa ba ba ba Method of Evoked Potentials High Amplitude Sucking 28 28 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ▪ The Ecological Perspective ▪ Research on perceptual development in infancy has been guided by the ecological view of Eleanor and James Gibson (Gibson, 1969, 1989, 2001; Gibson, 1966, 1979). ▪ Connects perceptual capabilities to information available in the world of the perceiver ▪ Objects have affordances - opportunities for interaction offered by objects that fit within our capabilities to perform activities. ▪ We directly and accurately perceive these affordances by sensing information from the environment ▪ The light or sound reflecting from the surfaces of the world—and from our own bodies through muscle receptors, joint receptors, and skin receptors, for example (Adolph & Kretch, 2015). 29 29 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT  Visual Perception  Visual Acuity and Human Faces ▪ Newborn’s vision is about 20/240 but 20/40 by 6 months of age ▪ Infants show an interest in human faces soon after birth ▪ Spend more time looking at their mother’s face than a stranger’s face as early as 12 hours after being born ▪ A 2-month-old scans much more of the face than the 1- month-old  Color Vision  Infants can discriminate some colour at 4-8 weeks  By 4 months they have colour preference 30 30 10  9/9/2024 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Visual Perception 1 month 2 months 3 months 1 year 31 31 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Visual Perception 32 32 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ▪ Visual Perception ▪ Perceptual Constancy: sensory stimulation is changing but perception of the physical world remains constant ▪ Size Constancy: recognition that an object remains the same even though the retinal image of the object changes Babies as young as 3 months show size constancy ▪ Shape Constancy: recognition that an object remains the same shape even though its orientation to us changes 33 33 11  9/9/2024 SIZE CONSTANCY 34 34 SIZE CONSTANCY 35 SIZE CONSTANCY 36 12  9/9/2024 SIZE DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP 37 SHAPE CONSTANCY 38 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ▪ Visual Perception ▪ Depth Perception ▪ Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk studied development of depth perception using a “visual cliff” ▪ Infants 6-12 months old can distinguish depth https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=DrzmvI6iMrE 39 39 13  9/9/2024 DISCUSSION Do you think that the ability for the infant to detect the danger from the 'cliff' side (i.e. perception of depth) might be innate or is it a learnt ability? 40 40 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT ▪ Other Senses ▪ Hearing ▪ Fetuses can hear and learn sounds during the last two months of pregnancy and can recognize their mother’s voice at birth ▪ Touch and Pain Newborns do respond to touch and can also feel pain ▪ Smell Newborns can differentiate odors ▪ Taste Sensitivity to taste may be present before birth 41 41 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT Intermodal Perception Involves integrating information from two or more sensory modalities Vision and hearing Key Area for Intermodal Perception Language development Social interaction Motor coordination 42 42 14  9/9/2024 SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT  Perceptual-motor coupling is necessary for infants to coordinate grasping:  Perception and action are not isolated but are coupled  Individuals perceive in order to move and move in order to perceive  Key aspects of perceptual-motor coupling in infant grasping ▪ Visual perception ▪ Motor planning and execution: ▪ Tactile feedback: ▪ Learning and adaptation 43 43 LEARNING, REMEMBERING, AND CONCEPTUALIZING Meltzoff: infants’ imitative abilities are biologically based Imitation: and are characterized by flexibility and adaptability Deferred Imitation: Piaget: deferred imitation does imitation that not occur until about 18 months occurs after a Meltzoff: research suggests it time delay of can occur as early as 9 months hours or days 44 44 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ▪ How Language Develops ▪ Gestures are used by about 8 to 12 months ▪ Pointing is considered an important index of the social aspect of language ▪ First words: ▪ Children understand first words earlier than they speak them ▪ A child understands about 50 words by age 13 months and 200 words by 2 years of age 45 45 15  9/9/2024 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 46 46 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ▪ How Language Develops ▪ First Words ▪ Overextension: tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning ▪ e.g use the word "dog" to refer to all four-legged animals, including cats, pigs, and cows ▪ Underextension: tendency to apply a word too narrowly ▪ E.g Kitty might mean the family cat, but not other cats ▪ Two-Word Utterances ▪ Occur at about 18–24 months ▪ Child relies on gesture, tone, and context ▪ Telegraphic speech: use of short and precise words without grammatical markers (e.g. I hungry, doggy tired) 47 47 LANGUAGE MILESTONES IN INFANCY 48 48 16  9/9/2024 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ▪ Biological and Environmental Influences ▪ Biological Influences: ▪ Evolution of nervous system and vocal apparatus ▪ Particular brain regions used for language: ▪ Broca’s area: language production ▪ Wernicke’s area: language comprehension ▪ Language Acquisition Device (LAD; Noam Chomsky): theory that a biological endowment enables children to detect certain features and rules of language 49 49 EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ▪ Emotional Development ▪ What Are Emotions? ▪ Emotion: feeling or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being ▪ Biological and Environmental Influences: Certain brain regions plays a role in emotions –limbic system and amygdala Relationships and culture provide diversity in emotional experiences ▪ Primary Emotions: present in humans and animals – e.g. surprise, fear ▪ Self-Conscious Emotions: require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a sense of “me” – e.g., jealousy 50 50 EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ▪ Emotional Development ▪ Fear is one of a baby’s earliest emotions ▪ Stranger Anxiety: infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers (To be discussed further in Lecture 4) ▪ First appears at about 6 months of age, intensifies at about 9 months of age 51 17  9/9/2024 EMOTIONAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ▪ Emotional Development ▪ Emotional Regulation and Coping ▪ Caregivers’ actions influence the infant’s neurobiological regulation of emotions Soothing reduces the level of stress hormones Swaddling ▪ Infant gradually learns how to minimize the intensity of emotional reactions ▪ Infants cannot be spoiled in the first year of life 52 END OF LECTURE 2 THANK YOU! 54 54 18