System Analysis & Design Lecture 11 PDF

# System Analysis & Design ## Chapter 5 Part 2: Requirements Determination ### Requirements Gathering Techniques - The requirements gathering process is used for building political support for the project and establishing trust and rapport between the project team building the system and the users...

# System Analysis & Design ## Chapter 5 Part 2: Requirements Determination ### Requirements Gathering Techniques - The requirements gathering process is used for building political support for the project and establishing trust and rapport between the project team building the system and the users who ultimately will choose to use or not use the system. - All the key stakeholders (the people who can affect the system or who will be affected by the system) must be included in the requirements gathering process. - The stakeholders might include managers, employees, staff members, and even some customers and suppliers. If a key person is not involved, that individual may feel slighted, which can cause problems during implementation (e.g., How could they have developed the system without my input?). ### Requirements Gathering Techniques - Interviews - JAD sessions (a special type of group meeting) - Questionnaires - Document Analysis - Observation Each technique has its own strengths and weaknesses, many of which are complimentary, so most projects use a combination of techniques, probably most often interviews, JAD sessions, and document analysis. ### Requirements Gathering Techniques - Interviews - An interview is the most used requirements gathering technique. After all, it is natural if you need to know something, you usually ask someone. - In general, interviews are conducted one-on-one (one interviewer and one interviewee), but sometimes, due to time constraints, several people are interviewed at the same time. - There are five basic steps to the interview process: selecting interviewees, designing interview questions, preparing for the interview, conducting the interview, and post-interview follow-up. #### 1-Selecting Interviewees The first step in interviewing is to create an interview schedule listing all the people who will be interviewed, when, and for what purpose. - People at different levels of the organization will have different perspectives on the system, so it is important to include both managers who manage the processes and staff who perform the processes to gain both high-level and low-level perspectives on an issue. - Also, the kinds of interview subjects needed may change over time. #### 2-Designing Interview Questions There are three types of interview questions: closed-ended questions, open-ended questions, and probing questions. - **Closed-ended questions** are those that require a specific answer. They are like multiple-choice or arithmetic questions on an exam. Closed-ended questions are used when an analyst is looking for specific, precise information. - For example, rather than asking, "Do you handle a lot of requests?" it is better to ask, "How many requests do you process per day?" - Closed-ended questions don't uncover why the answer is the way it is, nor do they uncover information that the interviewer does not think to ask ahead of time. - **Open-ended questions** are those that leave room for elaboration on the part of the interviewee. They are similar in many ways to essay questions that you might find on an exam. Open-ended questions are designed to gather rich information and give the interviewee more control over the information that is revealed during the interview. - **Probing questions** follow up on what has just been discussed to learn more, and they often are used when the interviewer is unclear about an interviewee's answer. - They encourage the interviewee to expand on or to confirm information from a previous response, and they signal that the interviewer is listening and interested in the topic under discussion. - Many beginning analysts are reluctant to use probing questions because they are afraid that the interviewee might be offended at being challenged or because they believe it shows that they didn't understand what the interviewee said. - When done politely, probing questions can be a powerful tool in requirements gathering. - No type of question is better than another, and a combination of questions is usually used during an interview. - At the initial stage of an IS development project, the as-is process can be unclear, so the interview process begins with unstructured interviews, interviews that seek broad and roughly defined information. In this case, the interviewer has a general sense of the information needed but has few close-ended questions to ask. These are the most challenging interviews to conduct because they require the interviewer to ask open-ended questions and probe for important information "on the fly." - No matter what kind of interview is being conducted, interview questions must be organized into a logical sequence so that the interview flows well. There are two fundamental approaches to organizing the interview questions: top-down or bottom-up. With the top-down interview, the interviewer starts with broad, general issues and gradually works towards more specific ones. With the bottom-up interview, the interviewer starts with very specific questions and moves to broad questions. In practice, analysts mix the two approaches, starting with broad general issues, moving to specific questions, and then returning to general issues. #### 3-Preparing for the Interview It is important to prepare for the interview in the same way that you would prepare to give a presentation. - The interviewer should have a general interview plan listing the questions to be asked in the appropriate order; should anticipate possible answers and provide follow-up with them; and should identify segues between related topics. - The interviewer should confirm the areas in which the interviewee has knowledge in order not to ask questions that he or she cannot answer. - Review the topic areas, the questions, and the interview plan, and clearly decide which have the greatest priority in case time runs short. #### 4-Conducting the Interview In starting the interview, the first goal is to build rapport with the interviewee so that he or she trusts the interviewer and is willing to tell the whole truth, not just give the answers that he or she thinks are wanted. - The interviewer should appear to be professional and an unbiased, independent seeker of information. - The interview should start with an explanation of why the interviewer is there and why he or she has chosen to interview the person; then the interviewer should move into the planned interview questions. - It is critical to carefully record all the information that the interviewee provides. In our experience, the best approach is to take careful notes write down everything the interviewee says, even if it does not appear immediately relevant. - If the interviewer does not understand something, he or she should be sure to ask. The interviewer should not be afraid to ask dumb questions because the only thing worse than appearing dumb is to be dumb by not understanding something. - One good strategy to increase understanding during an interview is to periodically summarize the key points that the interviewee is communicating. This avoids misunderstandings and demonstrates that the interviewer is listening. ### Joint Application Development (JAD) - JAD is an information-gathering technique that allows the project team, users, and management to work together to identify requirements for the system. IBM developed the JAD technique in the late 1970s, and it is often the most useful method for collecting information from users. - Capers Jones claims that JAD can reduce scope creep by 50 percent, and it avoids the requirements for a system being too specific or too vague, both of which cause trouble during later stages of the SDLC. - JAD is a structured process in which ten to twenty users meet under the direction of a facilitator skilled in JAD techniques. The facilitator is a person who sets the meeting agenda and guides the discussion but does not join in the discussion as a participant. He or she does not provide ideas or opinions on the topics under discussion to remain neutral during the session. - The facilitator must be an expert in both group process techniques and systems analysis and design techniques. One or two scribes assist the facilitator by recording notes, making copies, and so on. Often the scribes will use computers and CASE tools to record information as the JAD session proceeds. - The JAD group meets for several hours, several days, or several weeks until all the issues have been discussed and the needed information is collected. Most JAD sessions take place in a specially prepared meeting room, away from the participants' offices so that they are not interrupted. The meeting room is usually arranged in a U-shape so that all participants can easily see each other. At the front of the room (the open part of the U), are whiteboard, flip chart and/or overhead projector for use by the facilitator leading the discussion. - One problem with JAD is that it suffers from the traditional problems associated with groups: sometimes people are reluctant to challenge the opinions of others (particularly their boss), a few people often dominate the discussion, and not everyone participates. - A new form of JAD called electronic JAD, or e-JAD, attempts to overcome these problems by using groupware. In an e-JAD meeting room, each participant uses special software on a networked computer to send anonymous ideas and opinions to everyone else. In this way, all participants can contribute at the same time without fear of reprisal from people with differing opinions. Initial research suggests that e-JAD can reduce the time required to run JAD sessions by 50 to 80 percent. #### 1-Selecting JAD participants JAD participants are selected in the same basic way as selecting interview participants. - Participants are selected based on the information they can contribute, to provide a broad mix of organizational levels, and to build political support for the new system. - The need for all JAD participants to be away from their office at the same time can be a major problem. The office may need to be closed or operate with a skeleton staff until the JAD sessions are complete. - Ideally, the participants who are released from regular duties to attend the JAD sessions should be the best in that business unit. However, without strong management support, JAD sessions can fail because those selected to attend the JAD session are less likely to be missed (i.e., the least competent people). #### 2-Designing JAD sessions JAD sessions can run from as little as half a day to several weeks, depending upon the size and scope of the project. - In our experience, most JAD sessions tend to last five to ten days, spread over a three-week period. - Most e-JAD sessions tend to last one to four days in a one-week period. JAD and e-JAD sessions usually go beyond the collection of information and move into analysis. - For example, the users and the analysts collectively can create analysis deliverables, such as the functional models, structural models, or the requirements definition. - As with interviewing, success depends upon a careful plan. JAD sessions usually are designed and structured using the same principles as Interviews. - Most JAD sessions are designed to collect specific information from users, and this requires the development of a set of questions prior to the meeting. - One difference between JAD and interviewing is that all JAD sessions must be carefully planned. - In general, closed-ended questions are seldom used because they do not spark the open and frank discussion that is typical of JAD. - In our experience, it is better to proceed top-down in JAD sessions when gathering information. #### 3-Preparing for a JAD Session As with interviewing, it is important to prepare the analysts and participants for a JAD session. - Because the sessions can go beyond the depth of a typical interview and are usually conducted off-site, participants can be more concerned about how to prepare. - It is important that the participants understand what is expected from them. If the goal of the JAD session, for example, is to develop an understanding of the current system, then participants can bring procedure manuals and documents with them. If the goal is to identify improvements for a system, then they can think about how they would improve the system prior to the JAD session. - Most JAD sessions try to follow a formal agenda, and most have formal ground rules that define appropriate behavior. Common ground rules include following the schedule, respecting others' opinions, accepting disagreement, and ensuring that only one person talks at once. #### 4-Post-JAD Follow-up As with interviews, a JAD post session report is prepared and circulated among session attendees. The post session report is essentially the same as the Interview report. Because the JAD sessions are longer and provide more information, it usually takes a week or two after the JAD session before the report is complete. - The facilitator should be an expert in JAD or e-JAD techniques and, ideally, someone who has experience with the business under discussion. In many cases, the JAD facilitator can be an external consultant because Developing and maintaining this expertise in-house can be expensive. - The JAD facilitator performs three key functions. First, he or she ensures that the group sticks to the agenda. The only reason to digress from the agenda is when it becomes clear to the facilitator, project leader, and project sponsor that the JAD session has produced some new information that is unexpected and requires the JAD session (and perhaps the project) to move in a new direction. When participants attempt to divert the discussion away from the agenda, the facilitator must be firm but polite in leading discussion back to the agenda and getting the group back on track. - Second, the facilitator must help the group understand the technical terms and jargon that surround the system development process, and help the participants understand the specific analysis techniques used. Participants are experts in their area, or their part of the business, but they are not experts in systems analysis. The facilitator must, therefore, minimize the learning required and teach participants how to effectively provide the right information. - Third, the facilitator records the group's input on a public display area, which can be a whiteboard, flip chart, or computer display. He or she structures the information that the group provides and helps the group recognize key issues and important solutions. The facilitator must always remain neutral and simply help the group through the process. The moment the facilitator offers an opinion on an issue, the group will see him or her not as a neutral party, but rather as someone who could be attempting to sway the group into some predetermined solution. - However, this does not mean that the facilitator should not try to help the group resolve issues. For example, if two items appear to be the same to the facilitator, the facilitator should not say, "I think these may be similar." Instead, the facilitator should ask, "Are these similar?" If the group decides they are, the facilitator can combine them and move on. However, if the group decides they are not similar (despite what the facilitator believes), the facilitator should accept the decision and move on. The group is always right, and the facilitator has no opinion. ### Summary - Requirements Gathering Techniques - Interviews - JAD Sessions