Lecture 11 Prejudice Notes PDF

Lecture 11 Prejustice 27/12/2023 Prejudice - Neutral term, differential treatment among people Intergroup Attitudes Three-component model : ABC model : interactive Our belief / feeling toward this social group is a stereotype ● Reacting to others differently because of their category membership ● Co...

Lecture 11 Prejustice 27/12/2023 Prejudice - Neutral term, differential treatment among people Intergroup Attitudes Three-component model : ABC model : interactive Our belief / feeling toward this social group is a stereotype ● Reacting to others differently because of their category membership ● Cognitive → stereotype ● Affective → prejudice ● Behavioural → discrimination e.g. shake hand, walk toward them Sexism - Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their gender - Discriminate against women Stereotypes (Cognitive) ● Generalised beliefs about characteristics and behaviours of a group ● Image of a typical group member ● Traits that are perceived to be more common, or frequent, among members of a particular social category than among others e.g. women are nice but incompetent ; men are competent but not nice ● Subtypes - Women : housewife, sexy woman, career woman and feminist. athlete/ lesbian - Men : less clear cut, businessmen and sexually active men Stereotypes threat - Stigmatised groups know the negative stereotypes that others have on them - On tasks that really matter to the stigmatised people → they worry that their behaviours may confirm the stereotypes→ increase anxiety and negative emotions E.g. women and mathematics, low- socioeconomic status and intelligent Role congruity 一致性 theory 1 ● Applied to the gender gap in leadership - social stereotypes of women are inconsistent with people’s schemas of effective leadership, women are evaluated as poor leaders Glass ceiling - An invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities, from attaining top leadership positions Glass cliff - A tendency for women to be appointed to precarious 岌岌可危的地位 leadership positions associated with a high probability of failure and criticism. Facism - Media illustrate men with greater prominence 突顯 to the head ; women with greater prominence to the body Discrimination (Behavioral) ● Can be expressed as social distance or ambivalence 矛盾心理 behaviours or feelings ● Symbolic racism e.g. not by saying something bad to them but our behaviour treat them bad e.g. social distance whether you want to be with those people (how close in relationship) ● Experiencing conflicts between emotional antipathy 反感 towards racial groups yet modern egalitarian 平等主義 values prescribe 規定 non-prejudiced behaviours Tokenism - Giving trivial concession 微不足道的讓步 to a minority group in order to 轉移指控 deflect accusations of discrimination e.g. giving you a candy is being nice to you e.g. an organisation may employ minority members (hire women not because of their a ability) as tokens to help deflect accusation of prejudice Reverse discrimination 2 - Publicly in favour of a minority group over a majority group in order to deflect accusations of discrimination e.g. you treat people good even you don’t like them because you don’t want to be told you are discriminated - In short run, it may boost minority’s self confidence - In long run, it may develop unrealistic opinions of their abilities , no evidence to reduces deep- seated prejudice Effect of Ageing on popularity of Gender (male or female) actor Purpose: - To see any male or female will receive nomination of best picture or won for best picture Procedure: - Vote with number 2= won best picture, 1= nomination, 0 = otherwise Results: Best picture Oscar: Male is more likely to be nominated for best picture Movie guide ratings: Male acting is more likely to win the best picture Ageing - As you grow increase, your rank number higher => higher rank is worst - Female rank higher than male as they grow old (female get paid less) Cognitive Basis of S, P, & D - We discriminate people because they compete the common resource with us Stigma ● Visual stigma: race, gender, obesity and age mean that people cannot easily avoid being the target of stereotypes and discrimination - Targets cannot hide the stigma to cope with stereotypes ● Concealable 可隱藏 stigma / Internal stigma: homosexuality 同性戀, some illnesses 3 and some ideologies and religious affiliations 宗教信仰, allow people to avoid the experience of prejudice - The cost of concealment can be high. People have to be untrue to themselves and super-vigilant to ensure their stigma does not surface inadvertently 高度 警惕，確保他們的恥辱不會無意中浮現出來 ● Controllable stigma : people believe, rightly or wrongly, are chosen rather assigned E.g. homosexuality, obesity and smoking are thought to be controllable - people are believed to be responsible for having chosen to be these things - Much harsher reaction and more extreme discrimination Why does stigma persist? 1. Self- evaluative advantage: compare themselves or their group with other individuals or groups that are stigmatised 2. Legitimise inequalities of status: resources distribution favour a dominant group 3. Felt of certainty and controllability over - Stigmatisation is the outcome of an adaptive cognitive process help us avoid poor social exchange partners who may threaten our access to resources - E.g. associating with stigmatised individuals threatens their access to resources, social status, or acceptance by others. 1. Realistic Group Conflict - Prejudice stems from competition between various social groups over valued commodities 商品 or opportunities (jobs, homes, status) - Competition contributes to increases negativity between groups - 35 year data shows correlation between bad economic conditions & incidents of violence towards blacks (Hovland & Sears, 1940) e.g. When economic situation is worst, white and black compete with each other 4 2. Tajfel's Theory of Category Accentuation Once we impose categories, we judge items … ◦within same categories are perceived as more similar and homogeneous--assimilation ◦in different categories are perceived as more different and heterogeneous--contrast Minimal group paradigm (Tajfel) Mere classification of individuals into arbitrary groups results in discrimination, although Group members - there are no interactions between groups - there is no history of intergroup conflict - individuals’ identities are unknown - there is no self-interest involved Minimal group paradigm (1) Minimal group paradigm (2) You don't know who the person is in your group, If your group wins, you are likely to use equity rule (who invest more and win, you gain more money) If your group lose, you are likely to use equality rule (who invest more and lose, you gain more money) Minimal group paradigm (3) Result:of In-group-out-group Categorization - By classifying groups, we see more differences between groups, less difference within group - Categorise Group artists are meaningless but still have an effect, better, compare with individual artist - We always have ingroup bias, you always want your group to receive more. - In-Group membership is more important than outgroup - Equity 公平: when your group wins, I win , I deserve to gain more. If I lose, - Equality 平等: when my group loses, I would prefer to have some gain instead of nothing. 5 Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment Purpose: 1. to investigate intergroup conflict and the conditions under which it arises, as well as potential strategies for reducing conflict and promoting cooperation between groups. 2. to examine how intergroup conflict could be reduced or resolved by introducing superordinate 上級/common goals—goals that required cooperation between the previously conflicting groups. Procedure: 1. two groups of boys at a summer camp, who were initially unaware of each other's existence. The boys were randomly assigned to two separate groups, and a sense of group identity and cohesion was fostered within each group through various team-building activities. The experiment was divided into three phases: 1. Group Formation: The boys in each group engaged in activities that promoted group bonding and formed strong group identities. e.g. activities like hiking, swimming, and eating together, which fostered a sense of camaraderie within their respective groups. 2. Intergroup Competition: The researchers created a situation of intergroup conflict by introducing competitive activities between the two groups. The boys competed against each other in various sports and games, with trophies and rewards given to the winning group. This phase aimed to stimulate rivalry and antagonism between the two groups. 3. Superordinate Goals and Cooperation: the researchers introduced tasks that required cooperation between the two groups to achieve common goals. e.g., they staged a situation where a water supply system broke down, and both groups needed to work together to fix it. The researchers aimed to create a situation where the 6 boys from both groups had to collaborate and overcome challenges jointly. Result: - intergroup conflict could be reduced and positive intergroup relations could be fostered by introducing superordinate goals that required cooperation between previously conflicting groups. The study highlighted the potential for shared goals and cooperative efforts to overcome hostility and promote peaceful intergroup relations. Resolving intergroup Conflict ● Superordinate goals, a goal is above beyond your group goal, common goal e.g. Do some cooperation tasks They have to work together, shared effort to achieve shared goal e.g. having earthquake, different countries work together to solve common enemy During war time, the whole country united. ● Allport’s Contact hypothesis ● Osgood’s GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction) - One party takes the initiative to concede unilaterally 單方面讓步, without requiring prior commitment from another party and assuming the other party will reciprocate with concession eventually - Non competition situation, contact alone is not solving problem Allport’s Contact Hypothesis Conditions required for contact to be effective in reducing intergroup conflict (or in-group bias). The contact should be … - Of a structured contact that promotes 1.Equal status 2.A common goal 3.Cooperation Results show that intergroup contact effects typically generalise beyond participants in 7 the immediate contact situation. Not only do attitudes toward the immediate participants usually become more favourable, but so do attitudes toward - Entire outgroup - Outgroup members in other situations, and even - Outgroups not involved in the contact. Effects generalized beyond people in the immediate contact environment Allport’s conditions are not essential for intergroup contact to achieve positive outcomes. Samples with no claim to these key conditions still show significant relationships between contact and prejudice. Thus, Allport’s conditions should not be regarded as necessary for producing positive contact outcomes, as researchers have often assumed in the past. Rather, they act as facilitating conditions that enhance the tendency for positive contact outcomes to emerge We posit that the process underlying contact’s ability to reduce prejudice involves the tendency for familiarity to breed liking. 熟悉才能產生喜歡 Uncertainty reduction (reducing intergroup anxiety)is an important mechanism underlying the effect of contact - Intergroup anxiety refers to feelings of threat and uncertainty that people experience in intergroup contexts. - These feelings grow out of concerns about how they should act, how they might be perceived, and whether they will be accepted - These contact reduce uncertainty and enhance familiarity Graduated reciprocation in tension-reduction (GRIT) - Mutual Assured Destruction 確保毀滅 - Maintain peace - Maintain threat, you will hit back - Graduate, reciprocated , a small step -> be first be nice -> minimise the threat -> to see if the opposite person to reciprocate to be nice to you Other keywords: 1. Implicit association test - Reaction time test to measure attitudes - particularly unpopular attitudes that people might conceal 8 2. Essentialism 本質主義 - Pervasive 普遍存在 tendency to consider behaviour to reflect underlying and immutable, often innate, properties of people or the groups they belong to. 9