Summary

Lecture 10 covers the structure and function of the respiratory system, examining respiration, gas transport, and ventilation. It also discusses the role of the respiratory system in gas exchange and its non-respiratory functions.

Full Transcript

Respiratory I: Structure and Function ANSC 3080 G. Bedecarrats Learning Objectives  Outline the key stages during respiration  Describe the anatomy and organization of the respiratory system  Relate the anatomy and histology of the respiratory zone t...

Respiratory I: Structure and Function ANSC 3080 G. Bedecarrats Learning Objectives  Outline the key stages during respiration  Describe the anatomy and organization of the respiratory system  Relate the anatomy and histology of the respiratory zone to gas exchange  Describe the factors influencing ventilation  Define the pulmonary volumes Function of the Respiratory System  Respiratory function: gas transport for metabolism  Move oxygen from the air into pulmonary blood  Clearance of carbon dioxide  Non-respiratory function:  Lungs receive 100% of the cardiac output from the right heart.  Filter blood, chemical processing, maintenance and defenses (part of the first line of defense)  Facilitate venous return (respiratory pump) 1 Definitions Respiration = interchanges of gases between the atmosphere and the cells of the body Ventilation (breathing) = transport of air to and from the lungs Gas exchange = O2/CO2 exchange between the air in the lungs and cells in the body Cellular respiration = oxidation of cellular molecules that produces CO2, water and ATP Overall Gas Transport 1. Ventilation: movement of bulk airflow, delivering air to the respiratory zone where gas exchange occurs 2. Gas exchange/Lung diffusion: gas exchange between respiratory zone and blood - O2 moves across to blood and red blood cells; reverse process for CO2 3. Circulation/Transport (Blood  tissues) - Requires adequate function of the pulmonary and systemic circulations 4. Tissue diffusion: Erythrocyte/plasma  tissue cells = Passive diffusion 5. Internal respiration: metabolism using O2 and producing CO2 Ventilation Air transported through the airways from the atmosphere to the respiratory zone of the lungs Airways = system of tubular structures Nasal and oral cavities Pharynx and larynx Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Bronchioles connect to alveoli where gas exchange occurs 2 Airways Main functions:  Delivering gas to the respiratory zone (alveoli)  Conditioning of the inhaled air  Air warmed to core body temperature (prevents temperature choc in the alveoli)  Gas humidification: saturation with vapor to prevent dehydration of the respiratory epithelium in alveoli  Filtration, cleansing: prevents foreign objects and microorganisms to enter the lungs (reduces risks of injury and infection) Structure:  Nasal/Oral cavities:  Inner surface = mucous membrane that warms and humidifies air  Some species = hair in nostrils act as first filter  Epithelium contains ciliated cells and mucus cells (goblet): trap foreign objects, move the mucus towards the pharynx  Pharynx:  Connection between nasal/oral cavity and the larynx  Larynx:  Connects pharynx and the trachea: glottis and epiglottis = cartilage that prevents food to enter the trachea  Contains the vocal cords 3  Trachea:  Flexible tube kept open by cartilage rings  Inner surface lined with ciliated and mucus cells  Mucus traps particles, and coordinated cilia movements push the trash back toward the pharynx  Bronchi:  Possess cartilage plates to maintain the shape  Starts with 1 tube per lung = primary bronchi  Branches off to narrower tubes with less cartilage  Bronchioles:  Lack cartilage = depend upon lung recoil to maintain potency. Possess smooth muscle  Bronchi and bronchiole also possess ciliated and mucus producing epithelial cells 4 Muscle layers INFLAMMED AIRWAY In general 20-24 branching from trachea and the terminal alveoli Airway cross-sectional area:  Increases DRAMATICALLY moving from trachea to respiratory zone  Geometric increase in number of small airways  Reduces velocity of airflow to virtually ZERO  Movement of gas in respiratory zone by DIFFUSION only  Velocity (cm/sec) = flow (cm3/sec)/cross-section area (cm2) Airway clearance:  Cilia and globlet cells work to move thin sheet of mucus from lower parts of the lungs to the throat region  Defensins:  Airway “Lysol” – destroy bacteria; first line of defense (2nd line is immune system proper) Endoscopic View: Trachea Accumulation of mucus and pus in the trachea associated with inflammation of the lower airways Role of the environment 5 Alveoli = Respiratory Zone Clusters around terminal bronchioles Formed by a single layer of epithelial cells Adult human: covers 75-80 m2 Surrounded by a capillary network Air separated from blood by 2 layers of cells (epithelium and endothelium): best for gas exchange Some epithelial cells (type 2) produce fluid = surfactant which reduces surface tension If small particles reach alveoli = “phagocytized” by macrophages (immune defense) Thoracic Cavity Space within the thoracic cage between: Thoracic vertebras Ribs and intercostal muscles Sternum Diaphragm separate, thoracic and abdominal cavity Sheet of skeletal muscles and tendon Mediastinum Divide thoracic cage in 2 halves (from spine to sternum) Connective tissue containing vessels, nerves, trachea, esophagus and the heart Each lung fills 1 half 6 Visceral pleura Parietal pleura Thoracic Cavity Diaphragm Abdominal Cavity Abdominal Cavity Pleural membranes: wet epithelial surfaces, cover the lungs Intrapleural space filled with small amount of fluid = lubrication for friction free movements Ventilation Follows the laws of physic: flow from high to low pressure = depends on P Resistance to flow (R) due to friction of air particles with each others and with the ducts As for blood flow: F (flow) = P/R If R , P must  to maintain air flow If P , R must  to maintain air flow 7 Ventilation Pump (mechanics)  Compression/expansion of the lungs by respiratory muscles = controls P  Inspiration = active mechanism  Diaphragm contracts expands thoracic volume, creates negative pressure lung expands increase in alveolar volume negative pressure gradient facilitates flow down airways  Expiration = passive mechanism (at rest)  End of inspiration – inspiratory muscles relax, allows lung to spontaneously recoil increase pressure in alveoli create pressure gradient from alveoli to atmosphere  At rest diaphragm most important muscle  Boyle’s low of gases: for a gas at a set temperature, pressure and volume are linked: P1V1 = P2V2  If volume (V)  = pressure (P)   If volume (V)  = pressure (P)   Inspiration = P alveolar  P atmos = propels air through the airway until P alveolar = P atmos  Expiration (muscle relax, lungs recoil): P alveolar  P atmos = airflow outward until equilibrium reached Special Cases  Horses  End of expiration active beginning of inspiration passive (recoil)  Locomotion (walking running)  More than just the diaphragm and intercostal muscles involved  Muscles take active part in expiration (speeds it up)  Galloping: synchronization with breathing  Diving mammals  Voluntary apnea (up to 1 h)  Strong conducting airways  When under water, compressed gas pushed towards the air ways (no gas exchange) = prevents entry of gas in blood  Generally, do not dive with full lungs 8 Factors Influencing Ventilation  Air flow concept similar to blood flow (F = P/R)  Resistance in airways normally small  P major factor Air ways resistance:  Mostly in nasal cavity (diseases, obstruction)  During exercise, animals mainly use mouth to reduce resistance (except horses: flare nostrils)  Degree of turbulence: more turbulence = more resistance  Diameter: reduced with branching = increase resistance. Parallel branches results in increased cross/section (surface area) which compensates for increased resistance  Autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscle in bronchiole: Sympathetic relaxes cells = increased diameter Parasympathetic contracts cells = reduces diameter Lung compliance: Ability of the lung to distend followed by the ability to recoil Elastic fibers in the lung Muscle tissue in the intercostal muscles Depends on the elasticity of the tissues in the lung and the thoracic cage Depends on the surface tension in the alveoli Alveolar surface tension: Due to hydrogen bonds in water molecules when on contact with air (gives water drops their shape) Tends to reduce the surface area Since alveoli lined with moisture, it creates a surface tension against distension Reduced by the presence of SURFACTANT Mixture of phospholipids, Ca2+ and proteins Phopholipids reduce the surface tension between hydrogen molecules Barker syndrome in piglets: inadequate production of surfactant =  surface tension =  resistance to distension =  ventilation. 9 Pulmonary Volumes  Spirometer = measure volumes of air inhaled and exhaled (Spirogram = recording)  Volume flowing through airways = Tidal Volume (CVT)  Spirometer also used to monitor the respiratory frequency It is possible to further force more air during inspiration by maximum contraction of respiratory muscles = Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) After normal expiration, it is possible to force more air out: Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) After ERV forced out, there always remains air in the lungs: Residual Volume (RV) Vital capacity (VT) is the maximum air that can be inhaled and exhaled Total lung capacity = RV + VT 10 Different Respiratory Patterns (FYI) Eupnea: normal breathing Hyperpnea: increased depth or frequency (exercise) Polypnea: increased frequency of shallow breathings (panting) Dyspnea: labored breathing Apnea: cessation of breathing 11

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