Lecture-1 slides.pptx

Significance of studying Human A&P Anatomy—The Study of Form Examining structure of the human body – Inspection – Palpation – Auscultation – Percussion Cadaver dissection...

Significance of studying Human A&P Anatomy—The Study of Form Examining structure of the human body – Inspection – Palpation – Auscultation – Percussion Cadaver dissection – Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships Figure 1.1 Comparative anatomy – Study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends Gross Anatomy Histology: Study of Tissues Under a Microscope Cytology: Cell Structure Molecular Anatomy: Structures of Genes and Chromosomes Surface Anatomy Cross-Sectional Anatomy Systems Anatomy Comparative Anatomy Evolutionary Anatomy Paleoanatomy Developmental Anatomy  Embryology 16 Weeks  Pathology: Study of Disease Pathology Lab: University of Califormia 1902 Exploratory surgery Open body and take a look inside Radiological Anatomy or Medical Imaging Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Radiography (X- rays) – X-rays penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body – Absorbed by dense tissue such as bones and teeth that appear white – Over half of all medical imaging – Used in dentistry, (a) X-ray (radiograph) mammography, and fracture diagnosis © U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese Figure 1.13a 1-17  Medical Imaging Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. – Radiopaque substances – Injected or swallowed – Fills hollow structures Blood vessels Intestinal tract Figure 1.13b (b Cerebral angiogram Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc. 1-18  Medical Imaging Computed Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. tomography (CT scan) – Formerly called a CAT scan – Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis Slice-type image Increased sharpness of image Figure 1.13c (c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan © CNR/Phototake 1-19  Medical Imaging—Nuclear Medicine Positron emission tomography Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. (PET) scan – Assesses metabolic state of tissue – Distinguish tissues most active at a given moment – Mechanics—inject radioactively labeled glucose Positrons and electrons collide Gamma rays given off Detected by sensor Analyzed by computer (d) Positron emission tomographic Image color shows tissues using (PET) scan Tony Stone Images/Getty Images the most glucose at that moment Damaged tissues appear dark Figure 1.13d 1-20  Medical Imaging Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. – Slice-type image – Superior quality to CT scan – Best for soft tissue – Mechanics Alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field and radio waves Varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image (e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI) © Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY Figure 1.13e  Medical Imaging Sonography – Second oldest and second most widely used – Mechanics High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs – Avoids harmful X- rays Obstetrics Figure 1.14 Image not very sharp 1-22 In sonography (ultrasound imaging), the body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body's tissues. Ultrasound imaging is easy, safe, and relatively inexpensive. Pictured is an ultrasound image of a baby during the second to third trimester. Applied Anatomy: Sports Understanding The Hierarchy of Complexity Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Organism Tissue Organ systemOrgan Cell Macromolecule Organelle Atom Molecule  Anatomical Variation No two humans are exactly alike – 70% most common structure – 30% anatomically variant – Variable number of organs Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries – Variation in organ locations situs solitus situs inversus Dextrocardia situs perversus  Anatomical Variation Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal Pelvic kidney Horseshoe kidney Figure 1.8 Normal Variations in branches of the aorta  Physiology—The Study of Function Subdisciplines – Neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system) – Endocrinology (physiology of hormones) – Pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease) Comparative physiology – Limitations on human experimentation – Study of different species to learn about bodily function Animal surgery Animal drug tests – Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures  Physiological Variation Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity Typical physiological values – Reference man 22 years old, 154 lb, light physical activity Consumes 2,800 kcal/day – Reference woman Same as man except 128 lb and 2,000 kcal/day Failure to consider variation can  Homeostasis Homeostasis—body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death  Negative Feedback Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sweating 37.5 oC (99.5 oF) Vasodilation Core body temperature 37.0 oC (98.6 oF) Set point Vasoconstriction 36.5 oC (97.7 oF) Time Figure 1.10 Shivering Postural Change in Blood Pressure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Person rises from bed Blood pressure rises Blood drains from to normal; homeostasis upper body, creating is restored homeostatic imbalance Cardiac center accelerates heartbeat Baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure Figure 1.11 Baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brainstem Positive Feedback and Rapid Change Self-amplifying cycle – Leads to greater change in the same direction – Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change Normal way of producing rapid changes – Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals 1-33  Positive Feedback Loops Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3 Brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin 4 Oxytocin stimulates uterine 2 Nerve impulses contractions and pushes from cervix fetus toward cervix transmitted to brain 1 Head of fetus pushes against cervix 1-34  Positive Feedback and Rapid Change Fever > 104°F – Metabolic rate increases – Body produces heat even faster – Body temperature continues to rise – Further increasing metabolic rate Cycle continues to reinforce itself Becomes fatal at 113°F 1-35  Gradients - Difference in chemical concentration, electric charge, pressure, temperature etc. between two points. - Down the gradient - Up the gradient  Anatomical Terminology Standard international anatomical terminology – Terminologia Anatomica (TA) was codified in 1998 by professional associations of anatomists About 90% of medical terms from 1,200 Greek and Latin roots 1-37 Plural, Adjectival, and Possessive Forms 1-38  Plural, Adjectival, and Possessive Forms Plural forms not always easy – Ovary–ovaries, cortex–cortices, corpus–corpora, epididymis–epididymides Adjectival form of same word – Brachium denotes “arm” – Brachii denotes “of the arm” – Digiti—of a single finger or toe – Digits—fingers and toes – Digitorum—of multiple fingers or toes 1-39  The Importance of Precision Be precise in your terms Spell correctly Health-care professions demand the same type of precision People’s lives will be in your hands 1-40  The Organ Systems Integumentory Skeletal Muscular Digestive Respiratory Cardiovascular and Blood Lymphatic Immune Reproductive (Male and Female) Urinary Sensory Endocrine Nervous