Introduction Social Psychology PDF

Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 1: Introduction, Methods, and Paradigms Hannah Gans, PhD Candidate January 7th, 2025  What Is Social Psychology? The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of...

Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 1: Introduction, Methods, and Paradigms Hannah Gans, PhD Candidate January 7th, 2025  What Is Social Psychology? The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes  The applicability of social psychological principles What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes  The applicability of social psychological principles  The scientific method  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the  Individual differences situation/social influence  Private, internal ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error functioning  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the  Individual differences situation/social influence  Private, internal ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error functioning  Psychological processes  Correlational methods are shared by most people often employed that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used What is Social Psychology?  Internal forces like personal attitudes and dispositions matter!  Dispositions ◼ Internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits or abilities that guide a person’s behaviour  Ex. The People’s Temple in Jonestown 1978 What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide. What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide.  Situational forces: ◼ Isolation, group pressure, fear, and obedience to authority. What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide.  Situational forces: ◼ Isolation, group pressure, fear, and obedience to authority.  Dispositional factors: ◼ Belief in Jones’ vision and loyalty to the group. What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event  Evolutionary psychology ◼A relatively new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event  Evolutionary psychology ◼A relatively new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour  Social neuroscience ◼ Anintegration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and physiological bases of social and emotional behaviour What is Social Psychology?  The applicability of social psychological principles  Social psychology can be applied to help us understand everyday life & real-world social problems  Ex. has been used to design interventions What Is Social Psychology?  Sample social psychology research questions  Why do people conform to group behaviour even when it’s wrong?  What makes some relationships succeed while others fail?  How can we reduce prejudice and foster cooperation across diverse groups?  What motivates people to act altruistically or selfishly in emergencies?  Power of the Situation  Physicist Kurt Lewin  Similarto how objects move, people move in social situations as a function of field of forces surrounding them ◼ The situation = field of forces  Power of the Situation  Nazi Germany  Were Nazi soldiers somehow unusual, or were most of them normal people who found themselves in unusual situations? ◼ Obedience to authority ◼ Fear of punishment ◼ Group norms ◼ Sense of duty Power of the Situation  Milgram’s study of obedience  The Milgram Experiment  Experimental set-up  Experiment described as a “study of learning” ◼ Teacher and “learner” → memorize word pairs  Participantsinstructed to shock another participant (confederate) for any wrong answers  The Milgram Experiment  Shock level increased for each wrong answer ◼ Shock levels ranged from 15 volts (slight shock) to 450 volts (danger: severe shock)  During the experiment, the confederate begins to scream in pain and demand that the experiment end ◼ Later, the confederate stops making any sounds, indicating he may be possibly injured or dead The Milgram Experiment  The experimenter, wearing a white lab coat, instructs the participant to continue with the experiment Poll  What percentage of participants continued shocking the “learner” until the study was over? ◼ A: about 1% ◼ B: about 25% ◼ C: about 50% ◼ D: more than 50%  Milgram Experiment Results  Despite potential severe harm to another person, 65 percent of participants completed the experiment  Participants were of different ages and social classes  Same effects were found for women and men Milgram Experiment Results  Classic example of the power of the situation  Participants didn’t enjoy harming another person, yet behaved in accord with the situation  People underestimate the power of the situation  Seminarians as Samaritans  No help when in a hurry  Instructed to go deliver a short sermon  Half were told that they were in a hurry vs. other half were not  In between the buildings this is what they saw: Fundamental Attribution Error  Fundamental attribution error  Tendency to overestimate the role of personality and to underestimate the role of situations when explaining other people’s behavior  Channel Factors  Often the influences of situational factors aren’t fully recognized  Channel factors  Smallsituational factors can have large influences on behavior by guiding behavior in a particular direction  The Role of Construals  Construal  Interpretation and inferences made about a stimulus or situation  Interpretation is an active process The Role of Construals  Construals can govern behavior  Howwe interpret a situation will influence how we act in that situation ◼ People are more likely to cooperate in a study carried out by trustworthy scientists  The Role of Construals  Ross & Samuels’ (1993) Wall Street Game v. Community Game  Competitive undergrads and cooperative undergrads invited to play a game in which they took turns allocating money between themselves and others  Interested in whether how students played the game depended on personality or what the game was called ◼ The Wall Street Game ◼ The Community Game Schemas  Schema  General knowledge about the physical and social world  Includes expectations about how to behave in different situations  Stereotypes  Stereotypes  Schemas about specific social groups  Stereotypes can influence interactions with different social groups Stereotypes  Stereotypes can make social interactions more efficient  People believe they know what to expect Stereotypes  Stereotypes can make social interactions more efficient  People believe they know what to expect  But stereotypes may be applied incorrectly  Applied to the wrong individuals  Given too much influence on judgments  Automatic versus Controlled Processing  Automatic processing  Automatic, involuntary, and unconscious  Often based on emotional responses  Automatic versus Controlled Processing  Controlled  Conscious,systematic, and deliberate  Controlled processing can override automatic responses  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are the same  Natural selection ◼ Helpful traits are passed down  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are different  Cultural differences ◼ Independent versus interdependent  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are different  Cultural differences ◼ Independent versus interdependent ◼ Gender roles What Can We Learn from Social Psychology? Social psychology can explain many behaviors that may seem surprising Social psychology can reveal many ways in which our perceptions are often inaccurate or mistaken What Can We Learn from Social Psychology? Social psychology can reveal how behaviors are influenced by social situations Social psychology shows that much of our behavior is influenced by factors of which we are often unaware How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy ◼ Objectivity ◼ Be aware of the impacts of culture & the naturalistic fallacy How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy ◼ Objectivity ◼ Be aware of the impacts of culture & the naturalistic fallacy ◼ Skepticism ◼ Open-mindedness  How do we uncover this? Common Sense Explanations  Invoked AFTER we know the outcome  Hindsight bias  Different competing explanations  Little agreement about which explanation is correct  Cannot verify which is correct  How do we uncover this? Common Sense Explanations Social Psychology  Invoked AFTER we know the Focused on predicting outcome what will happen  Hindsight bias  Different competing Employs scientific explanations method to determine  Little agreement about which which explanation is explanation is correct correct  Cannot verify which is correct Social Psychology Methods  Allows us to truly understand human behavior  Helps us avoid pitfalls of common sense and hindsight bias  Systematically investigate the complexities of human behavior and social interactions How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world  Hypothesis  A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances (if-then)  Testable proposition  Gives theories practical value (allows us to test them) How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world  Hypothesis  A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances (if-then)  Testable proposition  Gives theories practical value (allows us to test them)  Operationalization  Must translate theoretical variables into observable & measurable behaviours How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas? Important Criteria  Reliability  How consistently a test will measure the variable of interest ◼ Ifyou took the same test twice, would it give you the same score. Important Criteria  Reliability  How consistently a test will measure the variable of interest ◼ If you took the same test twice, would it give you the same score. ◼ Test-rest reliability: repeated measurements ◼ Internal consistency reliability: across items ◼ Inter-rater reliability: across raters Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Thedegree that a test accurately measures the variable of interest ◼ Forinstance, do IQ tests actually measure what people think of as intelligence? Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Content validity/face validity ◼ Whether the test covers the entire range of the concept being measured Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Contentvalidity/face validity  Experimental validity ◼ Internal:are the changes in the DV caused by the manipulation of the IV? ◼ External: can the findings be generalized?  Criterion related validity/criterion validity Importance Criteria  Internal and external validity are often inversely related  The more closely a situation resembles real- life (external validity), the more difficult it is to tightly control the situation (internal validity) Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Content validity/face validity  Experimental validity  Criterion related validity/ criterion validity ◼ Predictivevalidity ◼ Concurrent validity  Collecting Data: Naturalistic Observation  Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour  Behaviors are recorded and categorized  Ex. how often certain behaviors occur  Ex. how people react in specific situations  Collecting Data: Naturalistic Observation  Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour  Takes place in the field (field research) ◼ Ex. Bullying on the school playground  Varies in the extent to which the observer interacts with the people being observed ◼ Ex. hidden camera  Collecting Data: Structured Observation  A technique whereby a researcher cues the behaviours of interest and observes participants responses in a laboratory  Ex. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic  Advantages  Good external validity  Relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic  Advantages  Good external validity  Relatively easy to conduct  Disadvantages  Poor validity ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation ◼ Behaviours only occur in private or infrequently ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic Structured  Advantages  Advantages  Good external validity  Standardized environment  Relatively easy to conduct ◼ Allows direct comparisons ◼ Good internal validity  Disadvantages  Observe infrequent or  Poor validity undesirable behaviours ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation ◼ Behaviours only occur in private or infrequently ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic Structured  Advantages  Advantages  Good external validity  Standardized environment  Relatively easy to conduct ◼ Allows direct comparisons ◼ Good internal validity  Disadvantages  Observe infrequent or  Poor validity undesirable behaviours ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation  Disadvantages ◼ Behaviours only occur in private  Observer bias or infrequently ◼ Validity & reliability ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Artificial environment ◼ Poor external validity  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Advantages  Good validity, relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Advantages  Good validity, relatively easy to conduct  Disadvantages  Poor validity & reliability* (data inaccuracies, missing data, rater biases); no causal conclusions  Collecting Data: Survey Methods  Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour  Ex. questionnaires, interviews  Collecting Data: Survey Methods  Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour  Ex. questionnaires, interviews  Ex. Experience sampling ◼ A type of survey data where participants report various experiences at regular time intervals  Collecting Data: Survey Methods Advantages  Collect data from many participants at the same time  Allows study of topics that are not directly observable  Ex. attitudes  Relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Survey Methods Advantages Disadvantages  Collect data from many  Validity & Reliability participants at the same vary time  Unrepresentative sample  Allows study of topics  Order of questions that are not directly  Response options observable  Question wording  Relatively easy to  Response biases Ex. socially desirable conduct ◼ responding  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate to study stress levels  Ex. EEG to examine brain activity during a problem-solving task  Ex. fMRI to examine brain activation when experiencing emotions  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate, EEG, fMRI  Advantages  Biological underpinnings  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate, EEG, fMRI  Advantages  Biological underpinnings  Disadvantages  Reliability & validity can vary  Can be expensive  Correlational  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  The technique whereby researchers systematically measure two or more variables, and assess the relation between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other)  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  Correlation coefficient (ex. Pearson’s r)  Varies from -1 to +1  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  Main correlational method problem  Correlation alone does not mean causation Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Motivation  What is the Relationship over time? Can also use correlational methods to look at variables over time  Cross-sectional: compare different naturally-occurring groups to each other (ex. age groups)  Advantages: can look at age differences; relatively easy  Disadvantages: cannot look at age changes, cohort effects (validity)  What is the Relationship over time? Can also use correlational methods to look at variables over time  Cross-sectional: compare different naturally-occurring groups to each other (ex. age groups)  Advantages: can look at age differences; relatively easy  Disadvantages: cannot look at age changes, cohort effects (validity)  Longitudinal: measure the same group of Ps over time  Advantages: can look at age changes; can make limited causal inferences  Disadvantages: attrition, harder to conduct, time shifts (validity)  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  The method in which the research randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  2 essential characteristics  Control ◼ Experimenter controls what happens to whom and when and how  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  2 essential characteristics  Control ◼ Experimenter controls what happens to whom and when and how  Random Assignment ◼ The process by which all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment ◼ Ensures equal distribution of personalities or backgrounds  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Independent variable  The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Personality (competitive/cooperative); name of game (Wallstreet/Community)  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Independent variable  The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Personality (competitive/cooperative); name of game (Wallstreet/Community)  Dependent variable  The variable a researcher measures to see if it’s influenced by the independent variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Cooperation  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling ◼ Often studies use convenience samples  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Usingrandom sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high ◼ The extent to which an experiment is similar to real- life situations  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high  Making sure psychological (experimental) realism is high ◼ The extent to which the task meaningful and realistic  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high  Making sure psychological (experimental) realism is high  Best test of external validity is to conduct replications ◼ Repeatingthe experiment with differing populations/methods  Interpreting results  The role of statistics  Descriptive vs. inferential statistics ◼ Descriptive: summarizes and describes data ◼ Inferential: allows us to generalize/predict  Interpreting results  The role of statistics  Descriptive vs. inferential statistics  The meta-analysis ◼A literature review that analyzes data from several studies that examine related hypotheses ◼ Statistical technique used to combine data from several studies Basic and Applied Research  Basic research  Concerned with trying to gain knowledge in its own right  Aim is to gain greater understanding of a phenomenon Basic and Applied Research  Applied research  Concerned with using current understanding of a phenomenon in order to solve a real-world problem Basic and Applied Research  Social psychology examples  Basic research in social psychology concerns how social information influences behaviors  Applied social psychology has been used to help design advertising campaigns and behavioral interventions Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Research conducted at universities must be approved by a Research Ethics Board (REB)  REBsexamine all research protocols to determine if the research is ethically appropriate Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Ethical considerations  Informed consent ◼ Participants should have sufficient information about the procedures to appropriately judge whether they want to participate Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Deception ◼ Deception may be used in research if properly justified ◼ Participants may be misled to prevent them from guessing the purpose of the study Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 2: Understanding the Self and Others Lecturer: Hannah Gans The Self  The Principles of Psychology (1890)  Individualself: beliefs about our unique personal traits, abilities, preferences, tastes, talents, and so forth The Self  The Principles of Psychology (1890)  Relationalself: beliefs about our identities in specific relationships The Self  The Principles of Psychology (1890)  Collective self: beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong The self in a Social World  The self is both shaped by and is a shaper of the social world The self in a Social World  The self is both shaped by and is a shaper of the social world  Ex. self-awareness ◼ The understanding that you exist as an entity with internal states The self in a Social World  The self is both shaped by and is a shaper of the social world  Ex. self-awareness ◼ The understanding that you exist as an entity with internal states ◼ Ex. Spotlight effect ◼ The belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance & behaviour than they really are The Self in a Social World Who am I? Self-Concept  Self-concept  Collectionof traits, attributes and beliefs that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves ◼ Ex. Working self-concept ◼ Subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular context Who am I? Self-Concept  Self-concept  Collectionof traits, attributes and beliefs that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves ◼ Ex. Working self-concept ◼ Subset of self-knowledge that is brought to mind in a particular context  Self information is organized in the form of self-schemas Who am I? Self-Concept  Self-schemas  Mental frameworks that organize information, feelings, and beliefs about the self and help guide processing of self-relevant information Who am I? Self-Concept  Self-schemas  Mental frameworks that organize information, feelings, and beliefs about the self and help guide processing of self-relevant information  Influence what we think, notice, remember, and how we behave Who am I? Self-Concept  Self-schemas  Mental frameworks that organize information, feelings, and beliefs about the self and help guide processing of self-relevant information  Influence what we think, notice, remember, and how we behave ◼ Ex. Self-reference effect ◼ The tendency for information pertaining to the self to be processed more efficiently and better remembered than other information How Does My Social Environment Influence Who I am? Social Self: Socialization Agents  The “looking-glass self”/ Reflected self appraisals  How others see us & treat us influence our sense of self  We internalize what we think are these opinions Social Self: Socialization Agents  The “looking-glass self”/ Reflected self appraisals  How others see us & treat us influence our sense of self  We internalize what we think are these opinions  Thus, what becomes the self is what we imagine others think of us  Affects our self-esteem  Dynamic feedback loop Social Self: Socialization Agents  Family and Socialization Agents  What is socially appropriate? (directly + indirectly) Social Self: Situationism  Aspects of the self may change depending on the situation  We are not fixed or static Social Self: Situationism  Ex. Self-Concept Differentiation ◼ Theextent to which persons’ self-representations are different for different social roles and contexts ◼ With my family… ◼ With my best friend… ◼ I am _______________ ◼ I am _______________ ◼ I am _______________ ◼ I am _______________ ◼ I am _______________ ◼ I am _______________ Social Self: Situationism  Ex. Self-Concept Differentiation ◼ Theextent to which persons’ self-representations are different for different social roles and contexts ◼ No response (blank lines) = 6 points: This reflects a lack of differentiation Adapted from Harter & Monsour (1992) Social Self: Situationism  Ex. Self-Concept Differentiation ◼ Theextent to which persons’ self-representations are different for different social roles and contexts ◼ No response (blank lines) = 6 points: This reflects a lack of differentiation ◼ One-word response = 4 points: A single word reflects minimal differentiation Adapted from Harter & Monsour (1992) Social Self: Situationism  Ex. Self-Concept Differentiation ◼ Theextent to which persons’ self-representations are different for different social roles and contexts ◼ No response (blank lines) = 6 points: This reflects a lack of differentiation ◼ One-word response = 4 points: A single word reflects minimal differentiation ◼ Two-word response = 2 points: Adding another word gives more nuance Adapted from Harter & Monsour (1992) Social Self: Situationism  Ex. Self-Concept Differentiation ◼ Theextent to which persons’ self-representations are different for different social roles and contexts ◼ No response (blank lines) = 6 points: This reflects a lack of differentiation ◼ One-word response = 4 points: A single word reflects minimal differentiation ◼ Two-word response = 2 points: Adding another word gives more nuance ◼ Three-word response = 0 points: A more detailed response demonstrates the highest level of differentiation Adapted from Harter & Monsour (1992) Situationism and the Self  Distinctiveness  We highlight aspects of the self that make us feel most unique in a given context Situationism and the Self  Distinctiveness  What sets you apart? Social Self: Social Comparisons  Social Comparison Theory  Welearn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people Social Self: Social Comparisons  Social Comparison Theory  We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people  Ex. Upward social comparisons ◼ Theprocess whereby we compare ourselves to people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability Social Self: Social Comparisons  Social Comparison Theory  We learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people  Ex. Upward social comparisons ◼ The process whereby we compare ourselves to people who are better than we are in a particular trait or ability  Ex. Downward social comparisons ◼ The process whereby we compare ourselves to people who are worse than we are in a particular trait or ability Social Self: Culture  Cultural values can shape how people construe & experience the self Social Self: Culture  Cultural values can shape how people construe & experience the self  Individualism promotes Independent self  Defining oneself in terms of one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others  Emphasizes uniqueness and independence ◼ Aligns with values of self-expression, personal achievement, standing out from the crowd Social Self: Culture  Collectivism promotes Interdependent self  Defining oneself in terms of one’s own relationships to other people; recognizing that one’s behaviour is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others  Emphasizes connectedness, and interdependence ◼ Personal identity as intertwined with the well-being of others Trait Applicability: Brain Processes Testing mPFC activation (area associated with self-knowledge) mPFC activated during trait-self mPFC activated during trait-self and applicability trait-other applicability How Can I Explain and Predict Myself?  Self-Knowledge and Introspection  The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives  But introspection can lead to errors when explaining our own behaviour  Self-Knowledge and Introspection  The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives  But introspection can lead to errors when explaining our own behaviour  Our attention is not often focused inward  Self-Knowledge and Introspection  The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives  But introspection can lead to errors when explaining our own behaviour  Our attention is not often focused inward  Even with introspection, the reasons for feelings and behaviours can be hidden from conscious awareness ◼ Ex. Explaining mood  Self-Knowledge and Prediction  People often make prediction errors  Ex. Planning fallacy ◼ Tendencyto underestimate how long it will take to complete a task ◼ Ex. Peetz & Buehler (2009)  Ex. Affective forecasting errors ◼ Why? ◼ Impact bias ◼ Overestimating the enduring impact of an emotion-causing event ◼ Immune neglect ◼ Underestimating the speed and strength of the “psychological immune system”  Self-Knowledge and Prediction  People often make prediction errors  Ex. Planning fallacy ◼ Tendencyto underestimate how long it will take to complete a task ◼ Ex. Peetz & Buehler (2009)  Self-Knowledge and Prediction  People often make prediction errors  Ex. Planning fallacy ◼ Tendencyto underestimate how long it will take to complete a task ◼ Ex. Peetz & Buehler (2009)  Ex. Affective forecasting errors ◼ Why? ◼ Impact bias ◼ Overestimating the enduring impact of an emotion-causing event  Self-Knowledge and Prediction  People often make prediction errors  Ex. Planning fallacy ◼ Tendencyto underestimate how long it will take to complete a task ◼ Ex. Peetz & Buehler (2009)  Ex. Affective forecasting errors ◼ Why? ◼ Impact bias ◼ Overestimating the enduring impact of an emotion-causing event ◼ Immune neglect ◼ Underestimating the speed and strength of the “psychological immune system” Self-Esteem  What is Self-Esteem?  The degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self  There are different types of self-esteem  Ex. Global (or trait) self-esteem ◼ General, stable & conscious attitude toward the self  What is Self-Esteem?  The degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self  There are different types of self-esteem  Ex. Global (or trait) self-esteem ◼ General, stable & conscious attitude toward the self  What is Self-Esteem?  The degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self  There are different types of self-esteem  Ex. Global (or trait) self-esteem ◼ General, stable & conscious attitude toward the self  Ex. State self-esteem ◼ Short-lived fluctuations in response to valenced events Self-Esteem  Contingencies of self-worth  Self-esteem as contingent on successes and failures in domains on which a person has based his or her self-worth ◼ Academic achievement ◼ Physical appearance ◼ Competence in specific skills or talents  What is Self-Esteem?  The degree to which the self is perceived positively or negatively; one’s overall attitude toward the self  There are different types of self-esteem  Ex. Global (or trait) self-esteem ◼ General, stable & conscious attitude toward the self  Ex. State self-esteem ◼ Fluctuations in response to valenced events  Ex. Implicit self-esteem* ◼ General attitude toward the self that is not consciously accessible  What is the Basis of Self-Esteem?  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because…  Serves critical psychological and social purposes  What is the Basis of Self-Esteem?  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because…  Buffers social rejection (Sociometer Hypothesis) ◼ High self esteem: valued and accepted by others ◼ Low self esteem: potential social rejection  What is the Basis of Self-Esteem?  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because…  Buffers social rejection (Sociometer Hypothesis)  Buffers anxiety (Terror Management Theory)  What is the Basis of Self-Esteem?  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because…  Buffers social rejection (Sociometer Hypothesis)  Buffers anxiety (Terror Management Theory)  Culture also impacts the basis of self-esteem  Interdependent self: relational; more balanced self-evaluations Culture and Self-Esteem  Contact with other cultures can influence views of the self  Individualsfrom Eastern cultures with greater contact with Western cultures report higher levels of self-esteem than those with less contact  What is the Basis of Self-Esteem?  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem because…  Buffers social rejection (Sociometer Hypothesis)  Buffers anxiety (Terror Management Theory)  Culture also impacts the basis of self-esteem  Interdependent self: relational; more balanced self-evaluations  Independent self: personal; self-evaluations more positively biased Gender and the Social Self  Across cultures, men generally have more independent, and women have more interdependent views of self Gender and the Social Self  Differences may be due to socialization  Cultural stereotypes ◼ Boys: praised for assertiveness ◼ Girls: praised for being empathetic Gender and the Social Self  Differences may be due to socialization  Parental feedback ◼ Boys: encouraged to solve problems independently ◼ Girls: offered emotional support Gender and the Social Self  Differences may be due to socialization  Educational environments ◼ Boys: encouraged to take leadership roles ◼ Girls: encouraged to collaborate with others Gender and the Social Self  Evolution may contribute to gender differences  Linked to survival and reproductive success ◼ Men: competing for resources to attract mates ◼ Women: cooperation and forming bonds Measuring Self-Esteem  Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSE) Measuring Self-Esteem  Collectivist-appropriate measurement?  Cultural sensitivity needed  Higher self esteem = universally beneficial? Dangers of Low Self-Esteem  Correlated with a range of negative outcomes  Loneliness  Risk for Psychological Disorders  Difficulty in navigating social situations/setbacks Dangers of High Self-Esteem  High, but unstable (or fragile) self-esteem  Ex. Aggression & bullying, narcissism  High, but contingent self-esteem  Ex. Negative impact on academics Dangers of High Self-Esteem  Realistic self-appraisal + humility is needed:  Stronger relationships Dangers of High Self-Esteem  Realistic self-appraisal + humility is needed:  Effective leadership Dangers of High Self-Esteem  Realistic self-appraisal + humility is needed:  Greater capacity for learning Self-Serving Biases, Beliefs, Comparisons, Behaviors Self-Enhancement  Basic and fundamental human need to maintain or enhance self-esteem; sometimes this is called the Self- enhancement motive  Seekour situations that make us feel good  Downplay failures to protect our self esteem Self-Serving Biases  A tendency to perceive oneself favourably  Different types of self-serving biases  Positive illusions ◼ Slightlypositive distortions of own attributes ◼ Ex. Better-than-average effect Self-Serving Biases  A tendency to perceive oneself favourably  Different types of self-serving biases  Positive illusions ◼ Slightlypositive distortions of own attributes ◼ Ex. Better-than-average effect  Temporal comparisons (Misremembering) ◼ Recalling information in a way that leads to a favourable self-evaluation ◼ Ex. Wilson & Ross (2001) Self-Enhancement  Self-Affirmation  Maintain high self esteem despite neg. feedback Self-Enhancement  Positive illusions and mental health  Most assume that proper mental health is marked by realistic views of the world  Research suggests that most well-adjusted people may have slightly unrealistic views about themselves Self-Enhancement  Positive illusions and mental health  Taylor & Brown study on positive illusions Self-Enhancement  Benefits of positive illusions  Elevate positive mood and reduce negative mood  Foster social bonds by making people more outgoing  Promote pursuit of and persistence at goals Cultural and Positive Illusions  Positive illusions about the self are more common in individualistic cultures  Members of collectivist cultures are less likely to report enhanced feelings of control, less likely to rate themselves as better than average, and less likely to be unrealistically optimistic Self-Serving Biases  False consensus effect  The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our opinions, attitudes, and undesirable or unsuccessful behaviours ◼ Ex. “Everyone cheats on exams” Self-Serving Biases  False uniqueness effect  The tendency to underestimate the extent to which other people share our positive attitudes and desirable or successful behaviours ◼ Ex. Monin & Norton (2003) ◼ Perceptions of water conservation practices during a drought Self-Serving Biases  Unrealistic Optimism A phenomenon in which people see themselves as more likely than other people to experience good events, and less likely than other people to experience bad events Self-Serving Biases  Unrealistic Optimism A phenomenon in which people see themselves as more likely than other people to experience good events, and less likely than other people to experience bad events  Perceived Control  The tendency to see uncontrollable events as at least partially under our control ◼ Ex. Watching your favourite sports team play Self-Serving Biases  Overconfident Judgments  People tend to be overconfident when predicting our own behaviour ◼ Ex.planning fallacy ◼ Often believe that this time will be different Self-Serving Comparisons  Downward social comparisons  Looking down at those who are struggling  Basking in reflected glory  Associatingwith successful others to increase one’s feelings of self-worth ◼ Wearing winning team jersey  Self-Serving behaviors  Self-Handicapping  Self-defeatingbehavior to have a ready to use excuse for poor performance The “Outward” Self  Self-presentation  Presenting the person that we would like others to believe we are (face)  Impression management  Self-Presentation  Self-monitoring  The tendency to monitor and scrutinize one’s behaviors when in a public situation  High self-monitors: attuned to social cues and norms  Low self-monitors: less concerned with conforming to expectations Self-Serving Attributional Biases  Self-serving bias (own behavior)  Tendencyto attribute failures to external causes and success to internal causes ◼ For instance, students may attribute bad marks to poor teaching but good marks to talent and hard work  Self-serving biases can boost and maintain positive self-esteem Self-Verification  Sometimes we care more about having stable, accurate beliefs about ourselves  Make us more predictable to ourselves and others Self-Verification  Self-verification strategies:  Selectively attend to and recall to consistent info  Enter relationships that promote consistency Self-Regulation  S-R: Initiate and control behavior to attain goals  Prioritize long term > short term immediate goals Self-Regulation  Self Discrepancy Theory: our behavior is motivated by the discrepancies between different aspects of our self concept Understanding the Limits of Self-Reports  Remember we can use self-reports to gather information about people’s thoughts, feelings & behaviours  But self-reports can be biased (reliability & validity)  Positively-biasedself-ratings, self-evaluations  Explanatory errors (ex. self-serving attributions) Your Own Behavior  Explanatory style A person’s habitual way of explaining events  Explanatory dimensions  Internal versus external ◼ Degree that cause is linked to the self or to the external situation Your Own Behavior  Stable versus unstable ◼ Degree that the cause is seen as fixed or as something that is temporary  Global versus specific ◼ Degree that the cause is seen as affecting other domains in life or is restricted to affecting one specific domain Your Own Behavior  Pessimistic attribution style  Internal, stable, global attributions habitually made for negative events ◼ “It’smy fault,” “I’m never going to be able to,” “I’m no good at anything”  Pessimistic attribution styles predict lower grades and poorer physical health later in life Explanatory Style and Physical Health Age Correlation 30.04 35.03 40.13 45.37* 50.18 55.22* 60.25* Correlation between explanatory style at age 25 and physical health at later ages. Earlier health is controlled for statistically (Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988). Social Cognition: Thinking About People and Situations Social Cognition  Social cognition  How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions  Can be automatic or controlled Social Cognition  Automatic thinking (System 1)  Quick, effortless, nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, habitual  Ex. Intuitive thinking Social Cognition  Automatic thinking (System 1)  Quick, effortless, nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, habitual  Ex. Intuitive thinking  Controlled thinking (System 2)  Conscious,intentional, voluntary, and effortful  Requires cognitive resources (ex. attention)  One purpose is to check automatic thinking Social Cognition  We simultaneously use bottom-up and top-down processes to perceive and understand our social world Social Cognition  We simultaneously use bottom-up and top-down processes to perceive and understand our social world  Bottom-up processes ◼ “Data-driven” mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on stimuli encountered in the environment Social Cognition  We simultaneously use bottom-up and top- down processes to perceive and understand our social world  Bottom-up processes ◼ “Data-driven” mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on stimuli encountered in the environment  Top-down processes ◼ “Theory-driven” processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of pre- existing knowledge and expectations Snap Judgments  Relatively accurate rapid assessments we make about others based on limited information  Snap Judgments  Dimensions of snap judgments (Todorov et al., 2018):  Approach vs avoid  Top dog vs underdog Schemas  Remember that information is organized in the form of schemas  Mentalstructures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence: ◼ What we notice ◼ What we think about ◼ What we remember Schemas  Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior)  Which one will be used? Schemas  Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior)  Which one will be used? ◼ The most accessible schema ◼ Theextent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds, and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world Schemas  Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior)  Which one will be used? ◼ The most accessible schema ◼ The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds, and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world ◼ Chronic accessibility Schemas  Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior)  Which one will be used? ◼ The most accessible schema ◼ The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds, and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world ◼ Temporary accessibility (priming) Schemas  Multiple schemas for making judgements and understanding our social world (ex. explaining behavior)  Which one will be used? ◼ The most accessible schema ◼ The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds, and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world ◼ Temporary accessibility (priming) ◼ Ex. Higgins, Rholes, & Jones (1977) How do we explain the social world? Explaining Events  Attribution theory  General term for theories about how people explain the causes of events they observe  Causal attribution  Explanation for the cause of your or another person’s behavior  The type of attribution made will influence how you respond to the situation  We can make internal or external attributions Internal vs. External Attributions  Internal attribution  Behavior is explained by aspects of the person ◼ Attributing success to intelligence Internal vs. External Attributions  External attribution  Behavior is explained by aspects of the situation ◼ Attributing being late to transportation issues Explaining Events  You walk into H&M and witness the boss yelling at an employee (Alyssa). You wonder why is the boss yelling at Alyssa?  Do you make a dispositional (internal) or situational (external) attribution?  Actor: Boss  Target: Hannah  Behaviour: Yelling Attributions  How do we decide which attribution to make?  Spontaneous trait inference ◼ An effortless automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone’s behaviour Attributions  How do we decide which attribution to make?  Spontaneous trait inference ◼ An effortless automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone’s behaviour  Kelley’s Covariation model ◼ Theory stating that, in order to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behaviour, we systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs Attributions  Covariation principle  Behavioral attributions are made by weighing information about the potential causes of the behavior. The Processes of Causal Attribution  Covariation principle  Two main factors: ◼ Consensus: information about the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does toward the same stimulus ◼ Distinctiveness: information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli ◼ Consistency: information about the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances The Processes of Causal Attribution  Covariation principle  Two main factors: ◼ Consensus ◼ Distinctiveness ◼ Consistency  Situational attribution ◼ Consensus is high, distinctiveness is high, and consistency is high ◼ Everyone else behaves the same way as the actor (e.g., all managers yell at Alyssa) ◼ The actor behaves differently towards other targets ◼ the actor consistently behaves this way toward the same target in similar situations The Processes of Causal Attribution  Covariation principle  Two main factors: ◼ Consensus ◼ Distinctiveness  Situationalattribution  Dispositional attribution ◼ Consensus is low, distinctiveness is low, and consistency is high ◼ No one else behaves this way (e.g., only this boss yells at Alyssa) The Processes of Causal Attribution The Processes of Causal Attribution  Kelley’s Covariation Model  Assumes people make attributions in a rational, logical fashion ◼ BUT people… ◼ Do not use consensus information as much as Kelley thought ◼ Rely more on distinctiveness and consistency information ◼ Often do not have access to all 3 types of information ◼ Ex. Visiting the store for the first time ◼ We exhibit the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) The Processes of Causal Attribution  Kelley’s Covariation Model  Assumes people make attributions in a rational, logical fashion ◼ BUT people… ◼ Donot use consensus information as much as Kelley thought The Processes of Causal Attribution  Kelley’s Covariation Model  Assumes people make attributions in a rational, logical fashion ◼ BUT people… ◼ Do not use consensus information as much as Kelley thought ◼ Rely more on distinctiveness and consistency information The Processes of Causal Attribution  Kelley’s Covariation Model  Assumes people make attributions in a rational, logical fashion ◼ BUT people… ◼ Do not use consensus information as much as Kelley thought ◼ Rely more on distinctiveness and consistency information ◼ Often do not have access to all 3 types of information ◼ Ex. Visiting the store for the first time ◼ We exhibit the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) Fundamental Attribution Error  Tendency to believe that a behavior is due to a person’s traits or disposition despite the situational causes present Actor-Observer Differences  Perceptual salience  As actors, the situation is salient  As observers, the person is salient Actor-Observer Differences  Perceptual salience  Asactors, the situation is salient; as observers, the person is salient  Lack of information about the intentions and past behaviors of the actor  As actors: awareness of all influences  As observers: only see the behavior Actor-Observer Differences  Perceptual salience  Asactors, the situation is salient; as observers, the person is salient  Lack of information about the intentions and past behaviors of the actor  As actors: awareness of all influences  As observers: only see the behavior  Helps protect our self esteem Culture and Causal Attributions  The fundamental attribution error is less prevalent in collectivistic cultures  Individualists more likely to attribute behaviors to dispositions  Collectivists more likely to attribute behaviors to the situation  Differences in attributions between some American subcultures Poll: Who is happier?  On average, which group do you think is happier – Olympic silver medalists or Olympic bronze medalists?  A: Silver  B: Bronze Olympic Silver Medalists 8 7 6 5 4 Bronze 3 Silver 2 1 0 Immediate Medal Stand Rated happiness of bronze and silver medalists from the 1992 Summer Olympics (Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich, 1995) Imagining Alternatives  Counterfactual thinking at the Olympics  Although it seems counterintuitive, bronze medalists are often more satisfied with their accomplishment than silver medalists  Silver medalists can imagine a gold medal as the alternative  Bronze medalists can imagine receiving no medal as the alternative Imagining Alternatives  Emotional amplification  Emotional reactions to counterfactual thoughts increase depending on how easy it is to imagine the alternative  Feel more personally responsible for failure depending on how easy it is to imagine the alternative Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 3: Emotions and Well-Being + Morality Lecturer: Hannah Gans What is an Emotion?  Brief, specific response  Arisewhen encountering situations that relate to our goals, desires or needs. What is an Emotion?  Brief, specific response to goal-relevant events What is an Emotion?  Physiological and psychological  Physiological: physical responses What is an Emotion?  Physiological and psychological  Psychological: behavioral responses Emotions vs. Moods  Emotion  Brief(minutes)  Specific (to elicitor) Emotions vs. Moods  Mood  Longer (hours, days)  Diffuse (no specific focus) Emotions Motivate Behavior  Emotions motivate behavior to achieve goals  Fear motivates escape from threats Emotions Motivate Behavior  Emotions motivate behavior to achieve goals  Anger motivates advocating Emotions Motivate Behavior  Emotions motivate behavior to achieve goals  Guilt motivates making amends Emotions Motivate Behavior  Psychological effects that drive behavior ◼ Strong urges to run, hide, or fight Emotions Motivate Behavior  Physiological effects that help the organism achieve goals ◼ Fightor flight” responses that increase heart rate, respiration, and blood flow to muscles Components of Emotions  Physiologicalstate  Psychological state (“appraisals”)  Facial expression (sometimes) Emotion Physiology  Autonomic nervous system  Sympathetic Branch ◼ Fight or flight response  Parasympathetic Branch ◼ Restorative response Emotion psychology  Appraisal processes  How objects and events in our environment are evaluated relative to our current goals  Different appraisals – different emotions Cognitive Appraisals  Primary appraisal stage  Initial, quick appraisal made of an event or circumstance Cognitive Appraisals Cognitive Appraisals Cognitive Appraisals  Secondary appraisal stage  Later appraisal, which concerns why we feel the way we do and how we would like to respond ◼ “Unfair”: Anger ◼ “Dangerous”: Fear ◼ “Delicious”: Happiness Cognitive Appraisals Facial Expressions Poll: What emotion is this? A: Anger B: Fear C: Happiness D: Disgust E: Sadness Universality of Facial Expression  Are facial expressions recognized cross- culturally?  Anger Fear Disgust Surprise Happiness Sadness  Anger Fear Disgust Surprise Happiness Sadness Universality of Facial Expression  Facial expressions are recognized cross- culturally  Happiness  Sadness  Anger  Disgust  Fear Universality of Facial Expression  How do emotions look? Universality of Facial Expression  Not just consistent across cultures, but also species  Human facial expressions resemble displays of other primates Universality of Facial Expression  Facial expressions are innate  Blind and sighted athletes show similar facial expressions of pride after winning a competition Evolutionary vs. Cultural Views  Evolutionary explanation  Emotions are biologically based behavioral adaptations meant to promote survival and reproduction Evolutionary vs. Cultural Views  Emotions are biologically based behavioral adaptations meant to promote survival and reproduction  Fear Evolutionary vs. Cultural Views  Emotions are biologically based behavioral adaptations meant to promote survival and reproduction  Love and attachment Evolutionary vs. Cultural Views  Cultural approaches  Emotions are influenced by views of self, social values, and social roles, which vary from culture to culture  Emotions should be expressed in different ways in different culture Cultural Variation in Emotion  Culture and focal emotions  Emotions that are emphasized within a culture Cultural Variation in Emotion  Culture and ideal emotions  Emotions that promote cultural values Cultural Variation in Emotion  Culture and emotion regulation  Some cultures celebrate openness with emotions vs. others do not Evolutionary and Cultural Views  Both evolutionary and cultural approaches are correct  Certainemotional responses are innate and universal, but cultures have different emotional accents and display rules Emotions and Social Relationships  Emotions play a key role in social interactions  Joyfrom celebrations  Sadness from harder times Emotions and Social Relationships  Social Functional Theory  Emotionshelp navigate social dynamics  Promote bonding and cooperation Promoting Commitment and Collaboration  The role of oxytocin  “The love hormone”  Released during intimate moments Promoting Commitment and Collaboration  Emotional mimicry  Unconscious imitation of emotions  Touch and collaboration  Physical touch fosters trust and cooperation Emotions and Understanding the Social World  Emotions influence perception  Circumstances Emotions and Understanding the Social World  Emotions influence perception  Broader Judgments Emotions and Understanding the Social World  Emotions influence perception  Priming Perception Emotions and Understanding the Social World  Emotions influence reasoning  Positive emotions enhance creativity  Broaden and Build Hypothesis Happiness Happiness  Cultural variations in happiness  American Perspective Happiness  Cultural variations in happiness  American Perspective  East Asian Perspective Happiness  Measurement of happiness  Life satisfaction  Emotional Well being Thinking About Emotions  Remembering emotions  Predicting emotions  Maximizing happiness Remembering Emotional Experience  Duration neglect  The length of an emotional experience has little influence on the overall evaluation of how pleasurable or unpleasurable the experience was  Peak-end rule Predicting Emotions  Affective forecasting  Predictinghow we will feel during or after a particular event in the future ◼ Forinstance, how happy or unhappy we’d be after a romantic breakup Affective forecasting is often incorrect  Immune neglect  Tendency to underestimate our resilience during negative life events  Painful, difficult experiences often are less upsetting then we expect them to be Predicting Emotions  Focalism  Tendencyto focus on only one aspect of an experience or event when trying to predict future emotions The Happy Life  Advantages of happiness  More successful marriages The Happy Life  Advantages of happiness  Longer lives The Happy Life  Advantages of happiness  More creative and productive work How to be Happy  Influences on happiness  Some increase in happiness with age How to be Happy  Influences on happiness  Some increase in happiness with age  Richer people happier than poorer people How to be Happy  Influences on happiness  Some increase in happiness with age  Richer people happier than poorer people  People are happier in countries where individual rights and economic opportunities are available How to be Happy  Ways to increase happiness  Put emotions into words (expressive writing) ◼ Writing about negative emotional events provides insight and reduces distress How to be Happy  Express positive social emotions ◼ Expressionsof gratitude linked to higher levels of happiness and health How to be Happy  Express positive social emotions ◼ Expressions of gratitude linked to higher levels of happiness and health ◼ Expressions of compassion and forgiveness linked to reduced levels of stress Cognitive Benefits of Positive Emotions  Positive emotions have also been linked with more creative and flexible thinking  Peoplefeeling positive emotions give more novel word associations Cognitive Benefits of Positive Emotions  Positive emotions have also been linked with more creative and flexible thinking  Negotiators feeling positive emotions are more likely to come to an optimal agreement Emotions and Social Cognition  Emotions have wide-ranging effects on how we process information and make judgments  Makes sense evolutionarily ◼ Designed to help us respond quickly and effectively Emotions Affect Judgments  Feelings-as-information  We’re unable to process all the information available to us  Feelings as a quick, intuitive source of information ◼ “How do I feel about this” Emotions Affect Judgments  Feelings-as-information  We’re unable to process all the information available to us  Feelings as a quick, intuitive source of information ◼ “How do I feel about this”  Emotions Affect Information Processing  Positive and negative emotions lead to different types of information processing  Emotions Affect Information Processing  Positive and negative emotions lead to different types of information processing ◼ Positiveemotions lead to more heuristic thinking ◼ More reliance on schemas and heuristics  Emotions Affect Information Processing  Positive and negative emotions lead to different types of information processing ◼ Negative emotions lead to more systematic thinking ◼ Less reliance on schemas and heuristics Morality Moral Attitudes  Consistent over time ◼ Rooted in our core values ◼ Part of our identity Moral Attitudes  Consistent over time ◼ Rooted in our core values ◼ Part of our identity  Resistant to change ◼ People are often unwilling to shift their stance Moral Attitudes  Consistent over time ◼ Rooted in our core values ◼ Part of our identity  Resistant to change ◼ People are often unwilling to shift their stance  Predictive of behavior ◼ Compass for behavior ◼ Act in ways that align with moral principles Influential figures in morality research  Lawrence Kohlberg  Jonathan Haidt Kohlberg’s Rational Model  Morality is important  Moral decisions are complex  That’s why we think hard about them  Rational model: Conscious reasoning  Improvement over the lifespan Heinz’s Dilemma (Kohlberg, 1973) Heinz’s wife has cancer. She’ll die if she doesn’t get her medicine. There’s just one medicine that can cure the disease. A doctor in town has discovered this medicine, but asks $2000 for it – 10 times the price it should cost. Heinz can’t afford this. He tries to borrow money but he only gets half. He proposes to buy the medicine for half the price, but the doctor refuses. He worked on the medicine for years and wants to make a profit. Heinz is desperate and decides to break into the doctor’s house and steal the medicine. Is this decision morally justified? Poll Was it moral for Heinz to break in and steal the medicine? A: Yes B: No C: Not sure/it depends  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Level 1: Pre- Conventional  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation Conventional  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation - Egocentric moral decision: Conventional Stage 2: Self-Interest consequences for the self Orientation  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation - Egocentric moral decision: Conventional Stage 2: Self-Interest consequences for the self Orientation Stage 3: Interpersonal - Adolescents and some adults Level 2: Conformity Orientation Conventional  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation - Egocentric moral decision: Conventional Stage 2: Self-Interest consequences for the self Orientation Stage 3: Interpersonal - Adolescents and some adults Level 2: Conformity Orientation - Conventional moral decisions: based Conventional Stage 4: Authority on norms and values Orientation  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation - Egocentric moral decision: Conventional Stage 2: Self-Interest consequences for the self Orientation Stage 3: Interpersonal - Adolescents and some adults Level 2: Conformity Orientation - Conventional moral decisions: based Conventional Stage 4: Authority on norms and values Orientation Stage 5: Social Contract - “Adult morality” Level 3: Post- Orientation Conventional  Kohlberg’s Rational Model Stage 1: Obedience and - Children Level 1: Pre- Punishment Orientation - Egocentric moral decision: Conventional Stage 2: Self-Interest consequences for the self Orientation Stage 3: Interpersonal - Adolescents and some adults Level 2: Conformity Orientation - Conventional moral decisions: based Conventional Stage 4: Authority on norms and values Orientation Stage 5: Social Contract - “Adult morality” Level 3: Post- Orientation - Realizing that moral reasoning Conventional Stage 6: Universal Ethics can supersede social norms  Criticism of Kohlberg  Too western: Not cross-culturally applicable  Based on research with individuals from Western, industrialized societies  Different values are prioritized cross-culturally  Criticism of Kohlberg  Too western: Not cross-culturally applicable  Based on research with individuals from Western, industrialized societies  Different values are prioritized cross-culturally  Too androcentric (men as norm): Gilligan, 1973  Overlooks moral reasoning associated with women Maintaining interpersonal relationships and addressing care ethics  Criticism of Kohlberg  Haidt (2001): moral psychology emphasizes reasoning  Assumption: important decision → conscious thinking  Many moral decisions are made automatically Criticism of Kohlberg Social Intuitionist Model ◼Moral intuitions (quick + automatic) → moral reasoning to justify Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model Automatic reaction of aversion Moral Intuition Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model Automatic reaction Decision: good or of aversion bad Moral Intuition Moral Judgment Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model Automatic reaction Decision: good or Controlled of aversion bad rationalizing Rationalization of Moral Intuition Moral Judgment Moral Judgment Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model Julie and Mark are brother and sister. They’re traveling through France together. On their trip, they spend the night in a house on the beach. They decide it would be interesting to have sex with each other once. It would, at the very least, be a new experience for both of them. Julie is taking the pill already, but to be sure they also use a condom. They enjoyed the experience, but decide not to do it anymore. They’ll keep it a secret – an experience that brings them closer together. Was it morally ok that they had sex with each other? Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model  Intuitive Responses  Immediate, gut reaction to the scenario  Post-Hoc Reasoning  Ethical implications, potential harm, societal norms  Role of Emotions and Social Influences  Societal beliefs and emotional reactions to incest influence moral judgments Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model  Descriptive model – non-prescriptive  There are two cognitive processes that together create our decisions – intuition and reasoning. Importance of the second is overestimated.  Reasoning builds on intuition. Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model  Descriptive model – non-prescriptive  There are two cognitive processes that together create our decisions – intuition and reasoning. Importance of the second is overestimated.  Reasoning builds on intuition.  Post-hoc rationalizing, but feeling of conscious reasoning. Haidt’s (2001) Social Intuitionist Model  Descriptive model – non-prescriptive  There are two cognitive processes that together create our decisions – intuition and reasoning. Importance of the second is overestimated.  Reasoning builds on intuition.  Post-hoc rationalizing, but feeling of conscious reasoning.  Moral action determined more by moral intuitions than moral reasoning.  Where do moral intuitions come from? Five “Moral Foundations" 1. Harm/care 2. Fairness/reciprocity 3. Ingroup/loyalty 4. Authority/respect 5. Purity/sanctity How much would I have to pay you to... Harm – Kick a dog in the head (hard)? How much would I have to pay you to... Harm – Kick a dog in the head (hard)? Fairness – Make a secret agreement to only hire people of your own ethnicity? How much would I have to pay you to... Harm – Kick a dog in the head (hard)? Fairness – Make a secret agreement to only hire people of your own ethnicity? Loyalty – Bet on the Blue Jays to lose? How much would I have to pay you to... Harm – Kick a dog in the head (hard)? Fairness – Make a secret agreement to only hire people of your own ethnicity? Loyalty – Bet on the Blue Jays to lose? Authority – Slap your father in the face (with permission)? How much would I have to pay you to... Harm – Kick a dog in the head (hard)? Fairness – Make a secret agreement to only hire people of your own ethnicity? Loyalty – Bet on the Blue Jays to lose? Authority – Slap your father in the face (with permission)? Purity – Undergo a blood transfusion with (safe) blood from a pedophile? Five “Moral Foundations" 1. Harm/care “Individualizing” 2. Fairness/reciprocity 3. Ingroup/loyalty 4. Authority/respect 5. Purity/sanctity Five “Moral Foundations" 1. Harm/care “Individualizing” 2. Fairness/reciprocity 3. Ingroup/loyalty 4. Authority/respect “Binding” 5. Purity/sanctity Harm Rhesus monkeys press bar to receive food reward (large or small). Large reward causes electric shocks for another monkey. Most monkeys will stop pressing bar for large reward. Fairness Moral Emotions  You feel badly for people who suffer  You feel loyalty to family and friends  You feel guilty about doing bad things Emotional Biases  Emotions can be:  Partial (more emotions for things we care about) Emotional Biases  Emotions can be:  Partial (more emotions for things we care about)  Arbitrary (emotional state may be influenced by irrelevant things) Emotional Biases  Emotions can be:  Partial (more emotions for things we care about)  Arbitrary (emotional state may be influenced by irrelevant things)  Unreasoned (can’t always control emotion) Empathy as Concern for Others  Empathy can be any emotion--positive or negative (happiness, surpise, etc.)  Isn’t a “basic” emotion as such  But presence of suffering serves as a great trigger (elicitor) of an empathic reaction of hurting for other people  We feel as if the suffering is ours in some way Evidence That It’s Instinctive?  Present in infancy Evidence That It’s Instinctive?  Present in other animals Empathic Biases  Closeness  Familiarity  Genetic relatedness  Similarity Empathic Biases  Vividness  Salience  The Identifiable Victim “A single death is a tragedy, a million deaths are a statistic.” Disgust and Moral Judgment Remember Mark and Julie? Disgust “A sense of aversion to something perceived as dangerous because of its powers to contaminate, infect, or pollute by proximity, contact, or ingestion.” (Miller, 1998) Disgust  Human universal  Basic emotion, characteristic facial expression  Animals and animal by- products  Feces  Urine  Blood  Vomit  Rotten flesh  Most meat Disgust Causes Harsher Judgment  Participants were hypnotized and told to feel flashes of disgust when they read a trivial word  Then asked to judge the actions of others  Disgust made people harsher in their judgments of others Wheatley & Haidt (2005)  Disgust Readily Extends to People “In Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold preserved meat while I was eating at our bivoac; and plainly showed disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty.” Charles Darwin Disgust Readily Extends to People “Thus, throughout history, certain disgust properties – sliminess, bad smell, stickiness, decay, foulness – have repeatedly and monotonously been associated with… Jews, women, homosexuals, untouchables, lower-class people – all of those are imagined as tainted by the dirt of the body.” - Martha Nussbaum Disgust and Morality  Disgust is a basic emotion that leads to withdrawal and avoidance.  Inducing disgust for an individual can lead to a diminished moral respect and/or harsher treatment.  Disgust becomes a powerful rhetorical tool Disgust Sensitivity  Tendency to experience disgust Disgust Sensitivity  Tendency to experience disgust  Associated with negativity towards social “outgroups”  Gay men and lesbians  Immigrants and foreigners  Prostitutes and drug users What we covered today  Overview of emotions  Universality of emotions  How to be happy  Emotions and Morality  Emotions may be the basis of morality  Disgust as an emotion involved in condemnation and dislike of outgroups