Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 1 - 2025

Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 1: Introduction, Methods, and Paradigms Hannah Gans, PhD Candidate January 7th, 2025 About the Course  10 Lectures  Attendance is not required but lectures will not be recorded ◼ Some in-class assignments for bonus points  Ifyou...

Introduction to Social Psychology Lecture 1: Introduction, Methods, and Paradigms Hannah Gans, PhD Candidate January 7th, 2025 About the Course  10 Lectures  Attendance is not required but lectures will not be recorded ◼ Some in-class assignments for bonus points  Ifyou come you are expected to pay attention and be prepared to participate  Lecture slides are available on Quercus the evening before the lecture About the Course  Grading  Midterm:Multiple-choice and matching/short answer questions covering the lectures and readings ◼ 25% of your mark ◼ Covers lectures 1-5 ◼ February 11th About the Course  Grading  Research proposal outline: brief review of your idea for your social psychology experiment, in your own words ◼ 5% of your mark ◼ February 18 th  Research Paper: create a research proposal for an experiment within the field of Social Psychology. ◼ 20% of your mark ◼ March 18th About the Course  Grading  Final: Multiple-choice and matching/short answer questions covering the lectures and readings ◼ 50% of your mark ◼ Cumulative, but weighted towards lectures 6-10 (~75%) ◼ Will be scheduled by Registrar About the Course  We want you to do well!  How to get help  Email the TA’s directly Questions?  What Is Social Psychology? The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes  The applicability of social psychological principles What Is Social Psychology?  Principles of contemporary social psychology emphasize:  The power of the situation  The importance of cognition and construal  The power of the person  The importance of biological processes  The applicability of social psychological principles  The scientific method  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the situation/social influence ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the  Individual differences situation/social influence  Private, internal ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error functioning  Psychological processes shared by most people that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used  What is Social Psychology?  Social Psychology  Personality Psychology  The role of the  Individual differences situation/social influence  Private, internal ◼ Avoids the Fundamental Attribution Error functioning  Psychological processes  Correlational methods are shared by most people often employed that make them susceptible to social influence  Experimental methods are often used What is Social Psychology?  Internal forces like personal attitudes and dispositions matter!  Dispositions ◼ Internal factors such as beliefs, values, personality traits or abilities that guide a person’s behaviour  Ex. The People’s Temple in Jonestown 1978 What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide. What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide.  Situational forces: ◼ Isolation, group pressure, fear, and obedience to authority. What is Social Psychology?  The People’s Temple in Jonestown (1978) A tragic example of how situations and dispositions interact.  Over 900 people followed Jim Jones’ command to commit mass suicide.  Situational forces: ◼ Isolation, group pressure, fear, and obedience to authority.  Dispositional factors: ◼ Belief in Jones’ vision and loyalty to the group. What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event  Evolutionary psychology ◼A relatively new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour What is Social Psychology?  Every psychological event is also a biological event  Evolutionary psychology ◼A relatively new branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour  Social neuroscience ◼ Anintegration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and physiological bases of social and emotional behaviour What is Social Psychology?  The applicability of social psychological principles  Social psychology can be applied to help us understand everyday life & real-world social problems  Ex. has been used to design interventions What Is Social Psychology?  Sample social psychology research questions  Why do people conform to group behaviour even when it’s wrong?  What makes some relationships succeed while others fail?  How can we reduce prejudice and foster cooperation across diverse groups?  What motivates people to act altruistically or selfishly in emergencies?  Power of the Situation  Physicist Kurt Lewin  Similarto how objects move, people move in social situations as a function of field of forces surrounding them ◼ The situation = field of forces  Power of the Situation  Nazi Germany  Were Nazi soldiers somehow unusual, or were most of them normal people who found themselves in unusual situations? ◼ Obedience to authority ◼ Fear of punishment ◼ Group norms ◼ Sense of duty Power of the Situation  Milgram’s study of obedience  The Milgram Experiment  Experimental set-up  Experiment described as a “study of learning” ◼ Teacher and “learner” → memorize word pairs  Participantsinstructed to shock another participant (confederate) for any wrong answers  The Milgram Experiment  Shock level increased for each wrong answer ◼ Shock levels ranged from 15 volts (slight shock) to 450 volts (danger: severe shock)  During the experiment, the confederate begins to scream in pain and demand that the experiment end ◼ Later, the confederate stops making any sounds, indicating he may be possibly injured or dead The Milgram Experiment  The experimenter, wearing a white lab coat, instructs the participant to continue with the experiment Poll  What percentage of participants continued shocking the “learner” until the study was over? ◼ A: about 1% ◼ B: about 25% ◼ C: about 50% ◼ D: more than 50%  Milgram Experiment Results  Despite potential severe harm to another person, 65 percent of participants completed the experiment  Participants were of different ages and social classes  Same effects were found for women and men Milgram Experiment Results  Classic example of the power of the situation  Participants didn’t enjoy harming another person, yet behaved in accord with the situation  People underestimate the power of the situation  Seminarians as Samaritans  No help when in a hurry  Instructed to go deliver a short sermon  Half were told that they were in a hurry vs. other half were not  In between the buildings this is what they saw: Fundamental Attribution Error  Fundamental attribution error  Tendency to overestimate the role of personality and to underestimate the role of situations when explaining other people’s behavior  Channel Factors  Often the influences of situational factors aren’t fully recognized  Channel factors  Smallsituational factors can have large influences on behavior by guiding behavior in a particular direction  The Role of Construals  Construal  Interpretation and inferences made about a stimulus or situation  Interpretation is an active process The Role of Construals  Construals can govern behavior  Howwe interpret a situation will influence how we act in that situation ◼ People are more likely to cooperate in a study carried out by trustworthy scientists  The Role of Construals  Ross & Samuels’ (1993) Wall Street Game v. Community Game  Competitive undergrads and cooperative undergrads invited to play a game in which they took turns allocating money between themselves and others  Interested in whether how students played the game depended on personality or what the game was called ◼ The Wall Street Game ◼ The Community Game Schemas  Schema  General knowledge about the physical and social world  Includes expectations about how to behave in different situations  Stereotypes  Stereotypes  Schemas about specific social groups  Stereotypes can influence interactions with different social groups Stereotypes  Stereotypes can make social interactions more efficient  People believe they know what to expect Stereotypes  Stereotypes can make social interactions more efficient  People believe they know what to expect  But stereotypes may be applied incorrectly  Applied to the wrong individuals  Given too much influence on judgments  Automatic versus Controlled Processing  Automatic processing  Automatic, involuntary, and unconscious  Often based on emotional responses  Automatic versus Controlled Processing  Controlled  Conscious,systematic, and deliberate  Controlled processing can override automatic responses  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are the same  Natural selection ◼ Helpful traits are passed down  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are different  Cultural differences ◼ Independent versus interdependent  Evolution and Human Behavior  How we are different  Cultural differences ◼ Independent versus interdependent ◼ Gender roles What Can We Learn from Social Psychology? Social psychology can explain many behaviors that may seem surprising Social psychology can reveal many ways in which our perceptions are often inaccurate or mistaken What Can We Learn from Social Psychology? Social psychology can reveal how behaviors are influenced by social situations Social psychology shows that much of our behavior is influenced by factors of which we are often unaware How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy ◼ Objectivity ◼ Be aware of the impacts of culture & the naturalistic fallacy How do we uncover this?  The scientific method is an approach to understanding the world that involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation & formulation  Consists of:  Set of methods  Set of values ◼ Accuracy ◼ Objectivity ◼ Be aware of the impacts of culture & the naturalistic fallacy ◼ Skepticism ◼ Open-mindedness  How do we uncover this? Common Sense Explanations  Invoked AFTER we know the outcome  Hindsight bias  Different competing explanations  Little agreement about which explanation is correct  Cannot verify which is correct  How do we uncover this? Common Sense Explanations Social Psychology  Invoked AFTER we know the Focused on predicting outcome what will happen  Hindsight bias  Different competing Employs scientific explanations method to determine  Little agreement about which which explanation is explanation is correct correct  Cannot verify which is correct Social Psychology Methods  Allows us to truly understand human behavior  Helps us avoid pitfalls of common sense and hindsight bias  Systematically investigate the complexities of human behavior and social interactions How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world  Hypothesis  A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances (if-then)  Testable proposition  Gives theories practical value (allows us to test them) How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas?  Theory  A body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world  Hypothesis  A prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances (if-then)  Testable proposition  Gives theories practical value (allows us to test them)  Operationalization  Must translate theoretical variables into observable & measurable behaviours How Do Social Psychologists Test Ideas? Important Criteria  Reliability  How consistently a test will measure the variable of interest ◼ Ifyou took the same test twice, would it give you the same score. Important Criteria  Reliability  How consistently a test will measure the variable of interest ◼ If you took the same test twice, would it give you the same score. ◼ Test-rest reliability: repeated measurements ◼ Internal consistency reliability: across items ◼ Inter-rater reliability: across raters Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Thedegree that a test accurately measures the variable of interest ◼ Forinstance, do IQ tests actually measure what people think of as intelligence? Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Content validity/face validity ◼ Whether the test covers the entire range of the concept being measured Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Contentvalidity/face validity  Experimental validity ◼ Internal:are the changes in the DV caused by the manipulation of the IV? ◼ External: can the findings be generalized?  Criterion related validity/criterion validity Importance Criteria  Internal and external validity are often inversely related  The more closely a situation resembles real- life (external validity), the more difficult it is to tightly control the situation (internal validity) Importance Criteria  Measurement validity  Content validity/face validity  Experimental validity  Criterion related validity/ criterion validity ◼ Predictivevalidity ◼ Concurrent validity  Collecting Data: Naturalistic Observation  Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour  Behaviors are recorded and categorized  Ex. how often certain behaviors occur  Ex. how people react in specific situations  Collecting Data: Naturalistic Observation  Technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of their behaviour  Takes place in the field (field research) ◼ Ex. Bullying on the school playground  Varies in the extent to which the observer interacts with the people being observed ◼ Ex. hidden camera  Collecting Data: Structured Observation  A technique whereby a researcher cues the behaviours of interest and observes participants responses in a laboratory  Ex. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic  Advantages  Good external validity  Relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic  Advantages  Good external validity  Relatively easy to conduct  Disadvantages  Poor validity ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation ◼ Behaviours only occur in private or infrequently ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic Structured  Advantages  Advantages  Good external validity  Standardized environment  Relatively easy to conduct ◼ Allows direct comparisons ◼ Good internal validity  Disadvantages  Observe infrequent or  Poor validity undesirable behaviours ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation ◼ Behaviours only occur in private or infrequently ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Collecting Data: Observational methods Naturalistic Structured  Advantages  Advantages  Good external validity  Standardized environment  Relatively easy to conduct ◼ Allows direct comparisons ◼ Good internal validity  Disadvantages  Observe infrequent or  Poor validity undesirable behaviours ◼ People may change behaviour when aware of observation  Disadvantages ◼ Behaviours only occur in private  Observer bias or infrequently ◼ Validity & reliability ◼ Observer bias ◼ Also affects reliability  Artificial environment ◼ Poor external validity  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Advantages  Good validity, relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Archival Analysis  A form of observational method, whereby the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (ex. diaries, novels, magazines, newspapers)  Data is coded by judges  Advantages  Good validity, relatively easy to conduct  Disadvantages  Poor validity & reliability* (data inaccuracies, missing data, rater biases); no causal conclusions  Collecting Data: Survey Methods  Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour  Ex. questionnaires, interviews  Collecting Data: Survey Methods  Research in which a representative sample of people are asked questions about their thoughts, feelings, and behaviour  Ex. questionnaires, interviews  Ex. Experience sampling ◼ A type of survey data where participants report various experiences at regular time intervals  Collecting Data: Survey Methods Advantages  Collect data from many participants at the same time  Allows study of topics that are not directly observable  Ex. attitudes  Relatively easy to conduct  Collecting Data: Survey Methods Advantages Disadvantages  Collect data from many  Validity & Reliability participants at the same vary time  Unrepresentative sample  Allows study of topics  Order of questions that are not directly  Response options observable  Question wording  Relatively easy to  Response biases Ex. socially desirable conduct ◼ responding  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate to study stress levels  Ex. EEG to examine brain activity during a problem-solving task  Ex. fMRI to examine brain activation when experiencing emotions  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate, EEG, fMRI  Advantages  Biological underpinnings  Collecting Data: Psychophysiological Methods  Methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of people’s physical, cognitive, social or emotional behaviour  Ex. Heart rate, EEG, fMRI  Advantages  Biological underpinnings  Disadvantages  Reliability & validity can vary  Can be expensive  Correlational  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  The technique whereby researchers systematically measure two or more variables, and assess the relation between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other)  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  Correlation coefficient (ex. Pearson’s r)  Varies from -1 to +1  What is the Relationship? Correlational Methods  Main correlational method problem  Correlation alone does not mean causation Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Self-Esteem Academic Achievement Motivation  What is the Relationship over time? Can also use correlational methods to look at variables over time  Cross-sectional: compare different naturally-occurring groups to each other (ex. age groups)  Advantages: can look at age differences; relatively easy  Disadvantages: cannot look at age changes, cohort effects (validity)  What is the Relationship over time? Can also use correlational methods to look at variables over time  Cross-sectional: compare different naturally-occurring groups to each other (ex. age groups)  Advantages: can look at age differences; relatively easy  Disadvantages: cannot look at age changes, cohort effects (validity)  Longitudinal: measure the same group of Ps over time  Advantages: can look at age changes; can make limited causal inferences  Disadvantages: attrition, harder to conduct, time shifts (validity)  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  The method in which the research randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  2 essential characteristics  Control ◼ Experimenter controls what happens to whom and when and how  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  2 essential characteristics  Control ◼ Experimenter controls what happens to whom and when and how  Random Assignment ◼ The process by which all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment ◼ Ensures equal distribution of personalities or backgrounds  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Independent variable  The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Personality (competitive/cooperative); name of game (Wallstreet/Community)  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Independent variable  The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Personality (competitive/cooperative); name of game (Wallstreet/Community)  Dependent variable  The variable a researcher measures to see if it’s influenced by the independent variable  Ex. Ross & Samuels (1993) ◼ Cooperation  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling ◼ Often studies use convenience samples  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Usingrandom sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high ◼ The extent to which an experiment is similar to real- life situations  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high  Making sure psychological (experimental) realism is high ◼ The extent to which the task meaningful and realistic  Is the Relationship Causal? Experimental Methods  Can increase external validity by:  Using random sampling  Making sure mundane realism is high  Making sure psychological (experimental) realism is high  Best test of external validity is to conduct replications ◼ Repeatingthe experiment with differing populations/methods  Interpreting results  The role of statistics  Descriptive vs. inferential statistics ◼ Descriptive: summarizes and describes data ◼ Inferential: allows us to generalize/predict  Interpreting results  The role of statistics  Descriptive vs. inferential statistics  The meta-analysis ◼A literature review that analyzes data from several studies that examine related hypotheses ◼ Statistical technique used to combine data from several studies Basic and Applied Research  Basic research  Concerned with trying to gain knowledge in its own right  Aim is to gain greater understanding of a phenomenon Basic and Applied Research  Applied research  Concerned with using current understanding of a phenomenon in order to solve a real-world problem Basic and Applied Research  Social psychology examples  Basic research in social psychology concerns how social information influences behaviors  Applied social psychology has been used to help design advertising campaigns and behavioral interventions Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Research conducted at universities must be approved by a Research Ethics Board (REB)  REBsexamine all research protocols to determine if the research is ethically appropriate Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Ethical considerations  Informed consent ◼ Participants should have sufficient information about the procedures to appropriately judge whether they want to participate Ethical Concerns in Social Psychology  Deception ◼ Deception may be used in research if properly justified ◼ Participants may be misled to prevent them from guessing the purpose of the study What we covered today  What is Social Psychology? ◼ The study of social processes  The power of the Situation ◼ Milgram’s Obedience Study  Interpreting situations and behavior ◼ FAE,Construals, Schemas, Automatic vs. Controlled Processing  Scientific Method ◼ How to test ideas, Correlation vs. Causation