Lecture 04 - Pollution & Man-made Impacts PDF

Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime Transport (AASTMT) Cairo Campus College of Computing and Information UNR1601 Climate Change and Water Management Ch – Pollution & Man-made Impacts Dr. Mohamed A. El...

Arab Academy for Science, Technology, and Maritime Transport (AASTMT) Cairo Campus College of Computing and Information UNR1601 Climate Change and Water Management Ch – Pollution & Man-made Impacts Dr. Mohamed A. Elsayad -- Dr. Hassan Ahmed -- Dr. Ayman Mohamed Construction & Building Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, AASTMT, Cairo Campus Environmental Aspect Environmental Aspect is the Features of a company’s operations, processes, activities, products, or services that can have an impact (good or bad) on the environment. These aspects could be inputs or outputs during the life cycle assessment of a product or a service. 2 Reasons for Identifying Environmental Aspects Once the environmental aspect and the cause of that aspect have been identified, the next step is to identify the potential environmental impacts associated with it that may adversely affect the environment and human health. So the Reasons for Identifying Environmental Aspects are : Guide the setting of new environmental objectives and targets as part of the commitment to continual improvement Focus operational controls on significant environmental aspects Reduce risks from significant environmental aspects Identify training needs 3 Environmental Impact An environmental impact is defined as any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, resulting from activities, products, or services. The adverse effects could be on the air, land, water, and wildlife or the inhabitants of the ecosystem. ❑ Types of Environmental Impacts: Direct Impacts: Occur through direct interaction of an activity with an environmental component. Indirect Impacts (secondary): The impacts which are not a direct result of the activity, often produced away from or as a result of a complex impact pathway. Cumulative Impacts: Consist of an impacts that are created as a result of the combination of several activities. These impacts are combined with the cumulative effects of other past, present and reasonably foreseeable future projects. 4 Environmental Impact Pollution, contamination, or destruction that occurs as a consequence of an action, that can have short-term or long-term ramifications is considered an environmental impact. Pollution is Classified on the basis of the form (source) into (natural and man-made). ❑ Natural Impact: Physical Impact (Wind, Earthquakes, volcano,..). Biological Impact (Bacteria). ❑ Man-Made Impact: Global warming Ozone layer depletion Acid rain Air, water, or land Pollution Loss of biodiversity 5 Global warming Increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere and oceans, especially a sustained increase sufficient to cause climatic change. This phenomenon is due to a build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Industry Carbon dioxide greenhouse Floods Clean (CO2 ) caused soil production Open burning Methane (C𝐻4 ) Global erosion BAT& BEP Climatic warming then Transportation Nitrous oxide Change Solid waste destroy the (N2 O) strategy crop and famine Note : BAT : Best Available Technique & BEP : Best Environmental Practice 6 Ozone Depletion Ozone layer depletion, is reduction of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Depletion begins when chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) get into the stratosphere. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Refrigerator CFC Increase Industry ultraviolet Firefighting radiation Implement Montreal Reducing Layer Skin Plastics Protocol O3 depletion Cancer Manufacture Halons (Replace weak halon, CFC) Immune System 7 Acid rain Rainfall made so acidic by atmospheric pollution that it causes environmental harm, chiefly to forests and lakes. The main cause is the industrial burning of coal and other fossil fuels, the waste gases from which contain Sulphur and nitrogen oxides which combine with atmospheric water to form acids. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Destruction Cleaner Industry S of forests Production Sulfuric Health acid Acid Rain Solid Problem Open (𝐻2 SO4 ) waste N Building burning Strategy Damage 8 Air Pollution Occurs when harmful or excessive quantities of substances including gases, particulates, and biological molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases and death of humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Industry Air pollutant Lung BAT& BEP (Carbon disease Open burning dioxide (CO2) , Loss of air Cancer Cleaner Sulfur Air Production quality (Air Oxides (SOx), pollution Transportation degradation) Solid waste Carbon Respiratory Strategy Monoxide infections (CO) ) 9 Gases Considered TO MEASURE AIR POLLUTION Air quality index (AQI) is a measure used for reporting the daily air quality, by factoring the level of Pollution in the air. Different countries use different indices for measuring air quality by monitoring some or all of the following Pollution: carbon monoxide, PM2.5, PM10, Nitrogen dioxide, ground Ozone (O3), Sulphur dioxide among others. Pm 10 < 10 µm Particular matter Pm 2.5 < 2.5 µm 𝑆𝑂2 𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Criteria of air pollutants 𝑁𝑂2 𝐶𝑂 Quantity Toxicity 𝑃𝑏 𝑂3 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 10 National Ambient Air Quality Standards Pllutant Level Average time 9 PPm (10 mg/m3) 8 hrs Carbon Monoxide (CO) 35 PPm (40 mg/m3) 1 hr 0.053 PPm (100 μg/m3) Annual arithmetic mean Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 0.100 PPm 1 hr Ozone (O3) 0.075 PPm 8 hrs 0.03 PPm Annual arithmetic mean 0.14 PPm 24 hrs Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 3 hrs (secondary 0.5 PPm Standard) Particular matter (PM-10) 150 μg/m3 24 hrs 15 μg/m3 Annual arithmetic mean Particular matter (PM-2.5) 35 μg/m3 24 hrs Lead (Pb) 0.15 μg/m3 3 month rolling average 11 Exposure Limits Exposure Limits defined in three ways: Time Weighted Average (TWA): is a method of calculating a worker’s daily exposure to hazardous substances Ceiling: is the maximum concentration to which an unprotected worker may be exposed Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL): is the time-weighted average concentration of a substance over a 15 min period 12 Time Weighted Average (TWA) Time-weighted average (TWA) is a method of calculating a worker’s daily exposure to hazardous substances such as dust, fumes, chemicals, gases, or vapors. It is averaged to an 8-hour workday or 40-hour week, along with the average levels of exposure to the hazardous substance and the time spent in that area. TWA exposures for an eight hour work shift are calculated as follows: E = (Ca Ta + CbTb +.... CnTn ) / 8 Where: E: the equivalent exposure for the eight hour working shift C: the concentration during any period of time T where the concentration remains constant T: the duration in hours of the exposure at concentration C 13 Air Quality Index Air quality index (AQI) is a measure used for reporting the daily air quality, by factoring the level of Pollution in the air. Different countries use different indices for measuring air quality by monitoring some or all of the following Pollution: carbon monoxide, PM2.5, PM10, Nitrogen dioxide, ground Ozone (O3), Sulphur dioxide among others. 14 How to CALCULATE THE AQI The AQI is the highest value calculated for each pollutant as follows: a. Identify the highest concentration among all of the monitors within each reporting area and truncate in the following table. b. Find the two breakpoints that contain the concentration. c. Using the Equation, calculate the index d. Round the index to the nearest integer. Ozone (ppm) – truncate to 3 decimal places PM2.5 (µg/m3 ) – truncate to 1 decimal place PM10 (µg/m3 ) – truncate to integer CO (ppm) – truncate to 1 decimal place SO2 (ppb) truncate to integer NO2 (ppb) – truncate to integer 15 How to CALCULATE THE AQI Breakpoints for the AQI 𝑰𝑯𝒊 − 𝑰𝑳𝒐 𝑰𝑷 = (𝑪𝑷 - 𝑩𝑷𝑳𝒐 ) + 𝑰𝑳𝒐 𝑩𝑷𝑯𝒊 −𝑩𝑷𝑳𝒐 Where: 𝑰𝑷 = the index for pollutant p 𝑪𝑷 = the truncated concentration of pollutant p 𝑩𝑷𝑯𝒊 = the concentration breakpoint that is greater than or equal to 𝑪𝑷 𝑩𝑷𝑳𝒐 = the concentration breakpoint that is less than or equal to 𝑪𝑷 𝑰𝑯𝒊 = the AQI value corresponding to 𝑩𝑷𝑯𝒊 𝑰𝑳𝒐 = the AQI value corresponding to 𝑩𝑷𝑳𝒐 16 How to CALCULATE THE AQI Breakpoints for the AQI O3 (ppm) O3 (ppm) PM2.5 (μg/m3 ) PM10 (μg/m3 ) CO (ppm) SO2 (ppb) NO2 (ppb) AQI 8-hour 1-hour1 24-hour 24-hour 8-hour 1-hour 1-hour 0.000 - 0.054 - 0.0 – 12.0 0 - 54 0.0 - 4.4 0 - 35 0 - 53 0 - 50 Good 0.055 - 0.070 - 12.1 – 35.4 55 - 154 4.5 - 9.4 36 - 75 54 - 100 51 - 100 Moderate 0.071 - 0.085 0.125 - 0.164 35.5 – 55.4 155 - 254 9.5 - 12.4 76 - 185 101 - 360 101 - 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups 0.086 - 0.105 0.165 - 0.204 (55.5 - 150.4)3 255 - 354 12.5 - (186 - 304)4 361 - 649 151 - 200 Unhealthy 15.4 0.106 - 0.200 0.205 - 0.404 (150.5 - 355 - 424 15.5 - (305 - 604)4 650 - 1249 201 - 300 Very unhealthy (250.4)3 30.4 (2) 0.405 - 0.504 (250.5 - 425 - 504 30.5 - (605 - 804)4 1250 - 1649 301 - 400 Hazardous (350.4)3 40.4 (2) 0.505 - 0.604 (350.5 - 500.4)3 505 - 604 40.5 - (805 - 1650 - 2049 401 - 500 Hazardous 50.4 1004)4 17 AQI Example: Suppose you have an 8-hour ozone value of 0.07853333. First, truncate the value to 0.078. Then refer to the 8-hour ozone in table 5 for the values that fall above and below your value (0.071- 0.085). In this case, the 0.078 value falls within the index values of 101 to 150. Now you have all the numbers needed to use the equation. So an 8-hour value of 0.07853333 corresponds to an index value of 126. 18 AQI Example: Suppose you have an 8-hour ozone value of 0.07853333. First, truncate the value to 0.078. Then refer to the 8-hour ozone in table 5 for the values that fall above and below your value (0.071- 0.085). In this case, the 0.078 value falls within the index values of 101 to 150. Now you have all the numbers needed to use the equation. (150 −101) AQI = (0.078 – 0.071) = 126 (0.085 −0.071) So an 8-hour value of 0.07853333 corresponds to an index value of 126. 19 Liquid Pollution Water pollution is the contamination of surface or ground water. This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Industry Death of Cleaner Marine aquatic Production transportation animals Water Disruption Minimize All pollutant Liquid Quality of food- the use of Agricultural (Liquid wastes) Pollution degradation chains pesticides wastewater Destructio Erosion and n of sediment ecosystems control 20 Liquid Pollution Concentrations most commonly expressed as mass of substance per unit volume of mixture, e.g. mg/L, g/L, g/m3 Alternatively, mass of substance per mass of mixture, e.g. parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb) Occasionally, molar concentrations, e.g. moles/liter (M). Molarity: The molarity (M) of a solution is used to represent the amount of moles of 𝑛 solute per liter of the solution. ( ) 𝑉 Molality: The molality (m) of a solution is used to represent the amount of moles of solute per kilogram of the solvent. 21 Water quality standards as recommended by WHO 22 Water Quality Index Combined score in a series of 9 chemical and physical tests that indicate the overall quality of the particular body of water. The water tests: Chemical Physical PH Turbidity Nitrates Fecal coliform Phosphates Total dissolved solids Dissolved oxygen Temperature Change Biochemical oxygen demand Some factors are more important than others so each measurement is multiplied by the weighting factor. 23 Water Quality Index, status and grading of water quality 24 Land Pollution Degradation of earth's land surfaces often caused by human activities and its misuse. Haphazard disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices are a few of the contributing factors. Source Result Output Outcome Impact Solution Industry loss of Solid waste fertile land strategy Hazard Solid Land Land Effect on Solid waste Recycle Waste degradation Pollution wildlife Agriculture Cause Air Cleaner pollution production 25 SOLIDS POLLUTION Concentrations can be expressed as mass of substance per mass of solid mixture, e.g. mg/kg, g/g 1 mg/kg = 1 mg-substance per kg solid = 1 part per million by weight = 1 ppm 1 g/kg = 1 microg-substance per kg solid = 1 part per billion by weight = 1 ppb 26 Environmental pollution & Environmental Degradation Environmental pollution is defined as the contamination of the physical and biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent that normal environmental processes are adversely affected. There is a difference between Environmental Pollution & Environmental Degradation, both represent some kind of Environmental damage. pollution is specifically related to the environment only, while Degradation is the destruction of any subject or matter. Environmental pollution is increasing gradually and causing a serious impact on living organisms including humans. 27 Environnemental Pollution & Environnemental Dégradation parameter Environnemental Pollution Environnemental Degradation Definition Pollution is damage caused to air, water, soil, Degradation is a process through which the natural etc., because of pollutants. The pollutants can environment is compromised in some way, be of any kind and can harm any part of the decreasing biological diversity and health of the environment. environment. Factors High quantity of Exhaust gases. Natural factors such as drought, storms on sea, Chemical effluents. land and deserts such as hurricanes, tornadoes, Transport. carina and volcanic eruptions. These factors lead Unprecedented Construction. to land degradation through erosion. Ruinous agricultural policies. Human factors which include deforestation, The Population Explosion. industrialization and urbanization. These factors Unplanned Land-use policies. lead to water, air and land pollution. Types Air pollution. Deforestation. Water pollution. Desertification. Land / Solid waste pollution. Extinction. Emission. Erosion 28 Environmental pollution The emissions of 𝐶𝑂2 in the atmosphere due to fuel combustion increases from nearly zero in the "pre-industrial" interval (about 1860) to a peak value of 33 Gt in 2018. The concentration of 𝐶𝑂2 in the atmosphere increases from 280 ppm in the pre-industrial intervals to about 415 ppm in May 2019 and the trend continues to increase as shown in the following Figures. 29 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Sources and activity Data Emission Factors Global Worming Potential Totaling Emission 30 How to calculate Greenhouse Gas Emissions Sources and activity Data An activity that impacts the organization’s operations and results in the emission of greenhouse gases: Natural Gas heating. Greenhouse gases Carbon Dioxide (𝐶𝑜2 ), Electricity use Methane (𝐶𝐻4 ), Nitrous Oxide (𝑁2 𝑂), Sulfur Hexafluoride vehicle fuel. (𝑆𝐹6 ), Perfluorocarbons Air conditioning. (PFCs), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) Wastes sent to municipal landfill…etc 31 Global Warming Potentials for the gases Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the Earth by absorbing energy and slowing the rate at which the energy escapes to space; they act like a blanket insulating the Earth. Different GHGs can have different effects on the Earth's warming. Two key ways in which these gases differ from each other are their ability to absorb energy (their "radiative efficiency"), and how long they stay in the atmosphere (also known as their "lifetime"). The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of different gases. Specifically, it is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ). The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms the Earth compared to 𝐶𝑂2 over that time period. The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years. GWPs provide a common unit of measure, which allows analysts to add up emissions estimates of different gases (e.g., to compile a national GHG inventory), and allows policymakers to compare emissions reduction opportunities across sectors and gases. 32 Global Warming Potentials Are there alternatives to the 100-year GWP for comparing GHGs? The United States primarily uses the 100-year GWP as a measure of the relative impact of different GHGs. However, the scientific community has developed a number of other metrics that could be used for comparing one GHG to another. These metrics may differ based on timeframe, the climate endpoint measured, or the method of calculation. GWP: a number that represents the relative contribution of a gas toward global worming. there are three main factors to calculate this number: FIRST: the concentration of this gas Second: how long the molecule live in the atmosphere? (Global atmospheric lifetime) Third: how much IR radiation that molecule actually absorbs? 33 Greenhouse gases Potency and lifetime The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ). Greenhouse Gas Chemical Global Warming Atmospheric Formula Potentials for Lifetime (years) 100 years Carbon Dioxide 𝐶𝑜2 1 50 - 200 Methane 𝐶𝐻4 25 12 +/-3 Nitrous Oxide 𝑁2 𝑂 298 120 Hydrofluorocarbons HFCs 12 – 14,800 1.5 - 264 Perfluorocarbons PFCs 6,500 – 9,200 3,200 – 50,000 Sulfur Hexafluoride 𝑆𝐹6 22,800 3,200 Source: Environmental Protection Agency 34 Emission Factor A ratio corresponding to the amount of a greenhouse gas emitted as a result of a given unit of activity. Grams of carbon Dioxide per KWh of Electricity (g 𝐶𝑂2 /KWh) Kilograms of Methane per Metric tonne of Municipal Solid Waste (Kg 𝐶𝐻4 /t)) Grams of Nitrous Oxide per L of propane (g 𝑁2 O / L) Pounds of Carbon of per mile of vehicle Travel (Ib 𝐶𝑂2 /mi) Short tons of Methane per British thermal unit of Natural Gas (ton 𝐶𝐻4 /Btu) 35 Greenhouse gases Potency Example: Suppose a natural gas bill value equal to 14356𝑚3. The burning of the natural gas emits C𝑂2 , C𝐻4 , and 𝑁2 O. The emission factor for these gases are 1879, 0.037, and 0.033 g/𝑚3 respectevily. Calculate GWP. Solution: The emissions of C𝑂2 = 14356 x 1879 = 26974924 g C𝑂2 The emissions of C𝐻4 = 14356 x 0.037 = 531.172 g C𝐻4 The emissions of 𝑁2 O = 14356 x 0.033 = 473.748 g 𝑁2 O 26974924 531.172 473.748 GWP = x1 + x 25 + x 298 = 27.1615 t C𝑂2 e 106 106 106 36 Greenhouse gases Potency Gasoline-powered passenger vehicles per year Example: The truck needs 1 gallon to move a distance of 22.2 miles. The average vehicle miles traveled (VMT) through a year is 11,520 miles. The ratio of carbon dioxide emissions to total greenhouse gas emissions (including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, all expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents) for passenger vehicles was 0.994 (EPA 2021). The amount of carbon dioxide emitted per gallon of motor gasoline burned is 8.89 × 10-3 metric tons, as calculated in the “Gallons of gasoline consumed. Determine annual greenhouse gas emissions per passenger vehicle. Solution: Greenhouse gas emissions per year = 8.89×10-3 × 11,520/22.2 × 1/0.994 = 4.640 metric tons CO2E/vehicle /year 37 Greenhouse gases Potency Number of incandescent bulbs switched to light-emitting diode bulbs Example: A 9 watt light-emitting diode (LED) bulb produces the same light output as a 43 watt incandescent light bulb. Assuming an average daily use of 3 hours. Calculate the reduction of carbon dioxide per light bulb switched from an incandescent bulb to a light-emitting diode bulb Knowing that, the weighted average carbon dioxide emission rate for delivered electricity was 0.7087 metric ton CO2 per megawatt-hour, which accounts for losses during transmission and distribution (EPA 2020). Solution: Saving energy per year= (43 - 9 )x 3 x 365 x 1 /1,000 = 37.2 kWh/year/bulb replaced. reduction of carbon dioxide per light bulb = 37.2 x 0.7087 x 1 MWh/1,000 kWh x = 2.64 x 10- 2 metric tons CO /bulb replaced 2 38 Greenhouse gases Potency Home electricity use Example: In 2019, 120.9 million homes consumed 1,437 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity. On average, each home consumed 11,880 kWh of delivered electricity. The average carbon dioxide output rate for electricity generated was 0.401 metric ton CO2 per megawatt-hour, assuming transmission and distribution losses of 7.3%. Determine the emission of CO2 per home. Solution: The emission of CO2 per home= 11,880 × 0.401 × 1/(1-0.073) × 1 /1,000 = 5.139 metric tons CO2/home. 39 Thank You ! 40 Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index Method The weighted arithmetic index method is used to calculate the treated water quality index. The parameters for drinking water were used and compared with the allowable values for drinking water quality as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in order to calculate a WQI as given in the following steps 1- Calculation of unit weight factor 𝐾 𝑊𝑖 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝐾 where 𝑊𝑖 represents the weighting for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ determinant and this value varies from (0 to 1) and sum 𝑊𝑖 = 1; and K : is a proportional constant. 2- Calculation of the quality rating scale (𝒒𝒊 ), which reflects the comparative value of this determinant in the contaminated water with respect to its standard permitted value as follows: 𝑣 𝑖 − 𝑣𝑑 𝑞𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑣𝑑 where 𝑞𝑖 represents the rating for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ determinant, and this value varies from 0 to 100: Vi is the observed value of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ determinant: 𝑣𝑑 is the ideal value of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ determinant in pure water; and Si is the standard value of the ith determinant. 3- Calculation of water quality index using the following equation: WQI = 𝑊1 𝑞1 + 𝑊2 𝑞2 + …. 𝑊𝑛 𝑞𝑛 where: WQI has a value between 0 and 100 which indicates the quality of the water; n represents the number of parameters taken into consideration 41