Leadership in Organizations PDF

Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition, Global Edition Chapter 6 Power and Influence Tactics Lect. 05  Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 6.1 Understand how power is acquired or lost in organizations. 6.2 Underst...

Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition, Global Edition Chapter 6 Power and Influence Tactics Lect. 05  Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 6.1 Understand how power is acquired or lost in organizations. 6.2 Understand how power is related to leadership effectiveness. 6.3 Understand how to use power effectively. 6.4 Understand the different types of influence tactics. 6.5 Understand effective ways to use the influence tactics. What are the sources of leader's power? ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.  Conceptions of Power and Influence Influence is the essence of leadership. To be effective as a leader, it is necessary to influence people to carry out requests, support proposals, and implement decisions. The concept of power is useful for understanding how people are able to influence each other in organizations. Power involves the capacity of one party (the “agent”) to influence another party (the “target”) Power – Capacity of one party to influence another party. Authority – The rights, prerogatives, obligations, and duties associated with particular positions in an organization or social system  Sources of Power Position and Personal Power: The two broad power constructs are position power and personal power. Position power includes potential influence derived from legitimate authority to make important decisions, control over the use of resources and access to information, and control over the use of rewards and punishments. Personal power includes potential influence derived from agent expertise and friendship with the target person.  Sources of Power 1. Legitimate Power 2. Reward Power 3. Coercive Power 4. Referent Power 5. Expert Power 6. Information Power Sources of Power  Sources of Power Legitimate Power Legitimate power is based on formal authority, and it involves the rights, obligations, and duties associated with a particular position in an organization. It also involves the right to exercise control over things, such as money, resources, equipment, and materials, and this control is another source of power Compliance with legitimate rules and requests is more likely for: – members who identify with the organization and are loyal to it. – members who have an internalized value that it is proper to obey authority figures, the law. – whether the agent is perceived to be a legitimate occupant of his or her leadership position – person’s scope of authority. Higher level managers usually have more authority than lower-level managers  Sources of Power Reward Power Reward power is the perception by the target person that an agent can provide important resources and rewards desired by the target person. Reward power stems in part from formal authority to allocate resources and rewards, Reward power depends not only on a manager’s actual control over resources and rewards, but also on the target person’s perception that the agent has the capacity and willingness to provide promised rewards. One form of reward power over subordinates is the authority to give pay increases, bonuses, or other economic incentives to deserving subordinates. Reward power is derived also from control over tangible benefits such as a promotion, a better job, a better work schedule, a larger operating budget, a larger expense account, and status symbols such as a larger office or a reserved parking space. Possible constraints on a manager’s reward power include any formal policies or agreements that specify how rewards must be allocated Trading of favors needed to accomplish task is a common form of influence among peers in organizations. Upward reward power of subordinates over their boss is limited in most organizations. Few organizations provide a formal mechanism for subordinates to evaluate leader  Sources of Power Coercive Power A leader’s coercive power over subordinates is based on authority over punishments. Over the last two centuries, there has been a general decline in use of coercive power by most types of leaders Lateral relations provide few opportunities for using coercion in a way that is considered legitimate because of mutual dependencies. In many organizations, subordinates have the capacity to indirectly influence the performance evaluation of their boss. Subordinates can damage the reputation of the boss if they restrict production, sabotage operations, initiate grievances, hold demonstrations, or make complaints to higher management.  Sources of Power Referent Power Referent power is derived from a target person’s strong feelings of affection, admiration, and loyalty toward the agent. The strongest form of referent power involves the influence process called personal identification. When the relationship is characterized by a strong bond of love or friendship, the target person may do things the agent is perceived to want, even without being asked. Referent power is an important source of influence over subordinates, peers, and superiors, but it has limitations.  Sources of Power Expert Power Task-relevant knowledge and skill are major sources of personal power in organizations. However, expertise is a source of power only if others are dependent on the agent for advice. It is not enough for the agent to possess expertise; the target person must recognize this expertise and perceive the leader to be a reliable source of information and advice. Specialized knowledge and technical skill will remain a source of power only as long as dependence on the person who possesses them continues. Successful influence depends on the leader’s credibility and persuasive communication skills in addition to technical knowledge and analytical ability.  Sources of Power Information Power Another important source of power is control over information. This type of power involves both the access to vital information and control over its distribution to others. A leader who controls the flow of vital information about outside events has an opportunity to interpret these events for subordinates and influence their perception and attitudes. Control over information can be a source of upward influence as well as downward and lateral influence. When subordinates have exclusive access to information needed by superiors to make decisions, this advantage can be used to influence the superior’s decisions. Even when not actively participating in the decision process, a subordinate who provides most of the information for a decision has substantial influence over it How power is gained or lost?  How Power Is Gained or Lost Power is not a static condition; it changes over time due to changing conditions and the actions of individuals and coalitions. 1.Social Exchange Theory 2. Strategic Contingency Theory 3. Institutionalization of Power  How Power Is Gained or Lost Social Exchange Theory In a group, the amount of status and power accorded to an elected or emergent leader by other members depends on the person’s loyalty, demonstrated competence, and contribution to the attainment of shared objectives  How Power Is Gained or Lost Strategic Contingencies Theory Strategic contingencies theory explains how some organizational subunits gain or lose power to influence important decisions such as determination of the organization’s competitive strategy and the allocation of resources to subunits and activities. The power of a subunit depends on three factors: (1) expertise in coping with important problems, (2) centrality of the subunit within the workflow, and (3) the extent to which the subunit’s expertise is unique rather than substitutable. The opportunity to demonstrate expertise and gain power from it is much greater for a subunit that has responsibility for dealing with critical problems  How Power Is Gained or Lost Institutionalization of Power The process for using political tactics to increase influence or protect existing power sources is called “institutionalization.” Having power makes it easier to use political tactics for influencing important decisions in the organization. A powerful subunit can get its members appointed to key leadership positions where they will promote the subunit’s objectives. A powerful subunit or coalition is often able to use its power to maintain a dominant position even after their expertise is no longer critical to the organization. The evolutionary shift in power described by strategic contingencies theory can be delayed by the use of these political tactics, but if top management lacks the expertise to develop an appropriate strategy for responding to changes in the environment, the performance of the organization will decline.  Consequences of Power Studies on the consequences of leader power are inconclusive, but findings indicate that – effective leaders have more expert and referent power than less effective leaders – effective leaders rely on their personal power more than on their position power It is beneficial for leaders to have at least a moderate amount of position power The amount of necessary power for a leader will depend on what needs to be accomplished and on the leader’s skill in using the available power Personal and position power increase the likelihood of success – Expert and referent power for persuasion – Position power is an important source of influence – Position power can enhance personal power – Control over information complements expert power – Reward power facilitates deeper exchange relationships – Reward power enhances referent power – Some coercive power is necessary to support legitimate and expert power – Coercive power is needed to restrain disruptive influences  Guidelines for Using Power (1 of 6) Legitimate Power TABLE 6-1 Guidelines for Using Legitimate Authority Make polite, clear requests. Explain the reasons for a request. Don’t exceed your scope of authority. Verify authority if necessary. Follow proper channels. Follow up to verify compliance. Insist on compliance if appropriate.  Guidelines for Using Power (2 of 6) Reward Power TABLE 6-2 Guidelines for Using Reward Power Offer the type of rewards that people desire. Offer rewards that are fair and ethical. Don’t promise more than you can deliver. Explain the criteria for giving rewards and keep it simple. Provide rewards as promised if requirements are met. Use rewards symbolically (not in a manipulative way).  Guidelines for Using Power (3 of 6) Reward Power TABLE 6-3 Guidelines for Using Coercive Power to Maintain Discipline 1. Explain rules and requirements, and ensure that people understand the serious consequences of violations. 2. Respond to infractions promptly and consistently without showing any favoritism to particular individuals. 3. Investigate to get the facts before using reprimands or punishment, and avoid jumping to conclusions or making hasty accusations. 4. Except for the most serious infractions, provide sufficient oral and written warnings before resorting to punishment. 5. Administer warnings and reprimands in private, and avoid making rash threats.  Guidelines for Using Power (4 of 6) Reward Power TABLE 6-3 Guidelines for Using Coercive Power to Maintain Discipline (continued) 6. Stay calm and avoid the appearance of hostility or personal rejection. 7. Express a sincere desire to help the person comply with role expectations and thereby avoid punishment. 8. Invite the person to suggest ways to correct the problem, and seek agreement on a concrete plan. 9. If noncompliance continues after warnings have been made, use punishments that are legitimate, fair, and commensurate with the seriousness of the infraction.  Guidelines for Using Power (5 of 6) Expert Power TABLE 6-4 Ways to Use and Maintain Expert Power Explain the reasons for a request or proposal and why it is important. Provide evidence that a proposal will be successful. Don’t make rash, careless, or inconsistent statements. Don’t lie, exaggerate, or misrepresent the facts. Listen seriously to the person’s concerns and suggestions. Act confident and decisive in a crisis.  Guidelines for Using Power (6 of 6) Referent Power TABLE 6-5 Ways to Gain and Use Referent Power Show acceptance and positive regard. Be supportive and helpful. Use sincere forms of ingratiation. Keep promises and commitments. Make self-sacrifices to benefit others. Lead by example (use role modeling). Explain the personal importance of a request.  Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2) General Types of Influence Tactics The type of behavior used intentionally to influence the attitudes and behavior of another person is usually called an influence tactic. Three general types of influence tactics can be differentiated according to their primary purpose 1. Impression Management Tactics 2. Political Tactics 3. Proactive Tactics 4. Reactive Tactics Proactive influence is often labelled as the most ethical and desirable of the four tactics. Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2)  Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2) General Types of Influence Tactics – Impression Management Tactics These tactics are intended to influence people to like the agent (e.g., provide praise, act friendly, offer assistance) or to have a favorable evaluation of the agent (e.g., describe past achievements). Impression management tactics can be used by leaders to influence followers, or by followers to influence a leader.  Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2) General Types of Influence Tactics – Political Tactics These tactics are used to influence organizational decisions or otherwise gain benefits for an individual or group. One type of political tactic involves an attempt to influence how important decisions are made and who makes them. Examples include influencing the agenda for meetings to include your issues, influencing decision makers to use criteria that will bias decisions in your favor, and selecting decision makers who will promote and defend your interests. Political tactics are also used to defend against opponents and silence critics. Some political tactics involve deception, manipulation, and abuse of power, and ethical aspects of power and influence.  Influence Tactics and Outcomes (1 of 2) General Types of Influence Tactics – Proactive Tactics These tactics have an immediate task objective, such as getting the target person to carry out a new task, change the procedures used for a current task, provide assistance on a project, or support a proposed change. The proactive influence tactics are useful when a simple request or command is unlikely to have the desired outcome. Eleven types of proactive tactics are described later. Some of the eleven tactics can also be used to resist or modify a request from someone who is attempting to influence you. Influence Outcomes for Proactive Tactics  Influence Tactics and Outcomes (2 of 2) Influence Outcomes for Proactive Tactics 1. Commitment 2. Compliance 3. Resistance Influence Tactics and Outcomes (2 of 2) Types of Resistance  Types of Proactive Influence Tactics 1. Rational Persuasion 2. Apprising 3. Inspirational Appeals 4. Consultation 5. Collaboration 6. Ingratiation 7. Personal Appeals 8. Exchange 9. Coalition Tactics 10. Legitimating Tactic 11. Pressure  Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (1 of 3) TABLE 6-6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics Rational Persuasion: The agent uses logical arguments and factual evidence to show a proposal or request is feasible and relevant for attaining important task objectives. Apprising: The agent explains how carrying out a request or supporting a proposal will benefit the target personally or help advance the target person’s career. Inspirational Appeals: The agent makes an appeal to values and ideals or seeks to arouse the target person’s emotions to gain commitment for a request or proposal. Consultation: The agent encourages the target to suggest improvements in a proposal or to help plan an activity or change for which the target person’s support and assistance are desired.  Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (2 of 3) TABLE 6-6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics (continued) Collaboration: The agent offers to provide relevant resources and assistance if the target will carry out a request or approve a proposed change. Ingratiation: The agent uses praise and flattery before or during an influence attempt, or expresses confidence in the target’s ability to carry out a difficult request. Personal Appeals: The agent asks the target to carry out a request or support a proposal out of friendship, or asks for a personal favor before saying what it is. Exchange: The agent offers an incentive, suggests an exchange of favors, or indicates willingness to reciprocate at a later time if the target will do what the agent requests.  Types of Proactive Influence Tactics (3 of 3) TABLE 6-6 Definition of the 11 Proactive Influence Tactics (continued) Coalition Tactics: The agent seeks the aid of others to persuade the target to do something, or uses the support of others as a reason for the target to agree. Legitimating Tactics: The agent seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request or to verify authority to make it by referring to rules, policies, contracts, or precedent. Pressure: The agent uses demands, threats, frequent checking, or persistent reminders to influence the target to carry out a request.  Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (1 of 3) TABLE 6-7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics Influence Tactic Directional Sequencing Use of Tactic Results Rational Widely used in Used more for Persuasion all directions initial request Inspirational More down than No difference Appeal up or lateral Consultation More down and No difference lateral than up Collaboration More down and Not studied lateral than up  Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (2 of 3) TABLE 6-7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics (continued) Influence Directional Sequencing Used Alone or General Tactic Use of Tactic Results in Combination Effectiveness Apprising More down than Not studied Used most with High lateral or up other tactics Ingratiation More down and Used more for Used most with Moderate lateral than up initial request other tactics Exchange More down and Used most for Used both ways Moderate lateral than up quick follow-up equally often Personal More lateral Used more for Used both ways Low/Moderate Appeal than down or up initial request equally often  Effectiveness of Proactive Tactics (3 of 3) TABLE 6-7 Summary of Findings for Proactive Influence Tactics (continued) Influence Directional Sequencing Used Alone or General Tactic Use of Tactic Results in Combination Effectiveness Coalition More lateral Used most Used both ways Low/Moderate Tactic and up than for delayed equally often down follow-up Legitimating More down and Used most for Used most with Low/Moderate Tactic lateral than up quick follow-up other tactics Pressure More down Used most Used both ways Low than lateral or for delayed equally often up follow-up  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (1 of 11) 1. Rational Persuasion – Explain the reason for a request or proposal. – Provide evidence that your proposal is feasible. – Explain why your proposal is better than competing ones. – Explain how likely problems or concerns would be handled.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (2 of 11) 2. Inspirational Appeals – Appeal to the person’s ideals and values. – Link the request to the person’s self-image. – Link the request to a clear and appealing vision. – Use a dramatic, expressive style of speaking. – Use positive, optimistic language.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (3 of 11) 3. Consultation – State your objective and ask what the person can do to help. – Ask for suggestions on how to improve a tentative proposal. – Involve the person in planning how to attain an objective. – Respond to the person’s concerns and suggestions.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (4 of 11) 4. Collaboration – Offer to show the person how to perform a requested task. – Offer to provide necessary resources. – Offer to help the person solve problems caused by a request. – Offer to help the person implement a proposed change.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (5 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics Apprising Explain how the person could benefit from carrying out a requested task. Explain how the task you want the person to do would help his/her career. Explain why a proposed activity or change would be good for the person. Explain how a proposed change would solve some of the person’s problems.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (6 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Exchange Offer something the person wants in exchange for providing help on a task or project. Offer to do a specific task or favor in return for compliance with a request. Promise to do something for the person in the future in return for his/her help now. Offer to provide an appropriate reward if the person carries out a difficult request.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (7 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Ingratiation Say that the person has the special skills or knowledge needed to carry out a request. Praise the person’s past achievements when asking him/her to do another task. Show respect and appreciation when asking the person to do something for you. Say that there is nobody more qualified to do a task.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (8 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Legitimating Explain that your request or proposal is consistent with official rules and policies. Point out that your request or proposal is consistent with a prior agreement or contract. Use a document to verify that a request is legitimate (e.g., a policy manual, contract, charter). Explain that a request or proposal is consistent with prior precedent and established practice.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (9 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Personal Appeal Ask the person to do a favor for you as a friend. Ask for his/her help as a personal favor. Say that you are in a difficult situation and would really appreciate the person’s help. Say you need to ask for a favor before telling the person what it is.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (10 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Pressure Keep asking the person in a persistent way to say yes to a request. Insist in an assertive way that the person must do what you ask. Repeatedly check to see if the person has carried out a request. Warn the person about the penalties for not complying with a request.  Guidelines for Using Proactive Influence Tactics (11 of 11) TABLE 6-8 Ways to Use the Other Tactics (continued) Coalition Mention the names of others who endorse a proposal when asking the person to support it. Get others to explain to the person why they support a proposed activity or change. Bring someone along for support when meeting with the person to make a request or proposal. Ask someone with higher authority to help influence the target person. Thank you  Leadership in Organizations Ninth Edition , Global Edition Chapter 7 Leader Traits and Skills  Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 7.1 Understand how leader traits and skills are related to effective leadership. 7.2 Understand what traits and skills are most relevant for effective leadership. 7.3 Understand what traits and skills best predict success in a managerial career. 7.4 Understand how the relevance of a trait or skill depends on the situation. 7.5 Understand the limitations of the trait approach. What are the most important trait(s) for leaders? ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.  Nature of Traits and Skills Trait – Variety of individual attributes, including aspects of personality, temperament, needs, motives and values – Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular way, and some examples are self- confidence, extroversion, emotional maturity, and energy level. – Need (motive) – Desire for particular types of stimuli or experiences ▪ Social Needs and motives are important aspects of personality traits because they influence a person’s attention to information and events, and they guide, energize, and sustain behavior. Examples include the need for achievement, esteem, affiliation, power, and independence – Values – Internalized attitudes about what is right and wrong, ethical and unethical, moral and ▪ Examples include fairness and justice, honesty, freedom, equality, altruism, loyalty, civility, pragmatism Skill – The ability to do something in an effective manner. – (e.g., intelligence, interpersonal skills, conceptual skills, technical skills) Competency may involve traits, skills, or a combination of related skills and traits. Competencies are qualities considered relevant for managers in a particular organization, profession, or situation.  Nature of Traits and Skills Do Traits Matter? In the 19th and early 20th centuries, “great man” leadership theories were highly popular In the 20th century, the great man theories evolved into trait theories Evidence indicates that there are certain core traits which significantly contribute to business leaders’ success. Universal Theory of Leadership Certain leadership traits are universally important; that is, they apply in all situations  Types of Research on Leader Traits and Skills Several types of research have been used to learn how leader traits and skills are related to measures of leadership effectiveness, such as subordinate satisfaction and performance, unit performance, or ratings of leader effectiveness by bosses. Many studies examine how the traits and skills for leaders in similar managerial or administrative positions are related to measures of their leadership effectiveness. Some longitudinal studies compare managers who advanced successfully to top management position to managers who initially advanced but then “derailed” in their careers because they were dismissed, took early retirement, or simply reached a “plateau” without any chance of further advancement. Some other studies have attempted to determine the extent to which leader traits and skills are the result of heredity or learning.  Overview of Findings in the Research Some traits and skills increase the likelihood that a person will be selected or elected to fill a leadership position. Some traits and skills increase the effectiveness of a leader, but they do not guarantee it. A leader with certain traits can be effective in one situation but ineffective in a different situation. The pattern of traits and skills that best predicts leader effectiveness also varies somewhat for different outcomes, such as leader selection, advancement, performance by the leader's work unit, and subordinate satisfaction.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) TABLE 7-1 Specific Traits Related to Leadership Effectiveness High energy level and stress tolerance Internal locus of control orientation Emotional stability and maturity High core self-evaluations Personal integrity Socialized power motivation Moderately high achievement orientation Moderately high self-confidence Moderately low need for affiliation  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Energy Level and Stress Tolerance The trait research finds that energy level, physical stamina, and stress tolerance are associated with managerial effectiveness High energy level and stress tolerance help managers cope with the hectic pace, long hours, and unrelenting demands of most managerial jobs. Self-Confidence The term self-confidence is defined in a general way to include several related concepts such as self-esteem and self-efficacy. Excessive self-confidence may make a leader overly optimistic about the likely success of a risky venture. The arrogance and know-it-all attitude associated with excessive self-confidence have another negative side effect Internal Locus of Control People with a strong internal locus of control orientation (called “internals”) believe that events in their lives are determined more by their own actions than by chance or uncontrollable forces. In contrast, people with a strong external control orientation (called “externals”) believe that events are determined mostly by chance or fate and they can do little to improve their lives. Internals are more responsible, proactive, more initiative and more future- oriented  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Emotional Stability and Maturity Emotionally mature people have more self- awareness of strengths and weaknesses, and they are oriented toward self-improvement instead of denying weaknesses and fantasizing success. They are less self-centered (they care more about other people), they have more self-control (are less impulsive and more able to resist hedonistic temptations), they have more stable emotions (are not prone to extreme mood swings or outbursts of anger), and they are less defensive (are more receptive to criticism and more willing to learn from mistakes). They are also more likely to be at a high level of cognitive moral development. As a result, leaders with high emotional maturity maintain more cooperative relationships with subordinates, peers, and superiors. Core Self-Evaluation “a basic, fundamental appraisal of one’s worthiness, effectiveness, and capability as a person”. leaders with high core self-evaluations were more likely to instill confidence in followers and inspire them to achieve better outcomes.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Personal Integrity Integrity means that a person’s behavior is consistent with espoused values, and the person Integrity is a primary determinant of interpersonal trust. a major determinant of expert and referent power is the perception by others that a person is trustworthy. Values related to integrity include honesty, loyalty, fairness, justice, and altruism. One important indicator of integrity is the extent to which one is honest and truthful rather than deceptive. third indicator of integrity is the extent to which a leader fulfils the responsibility of service and loyalty to followers.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Power Motivation Someone with a high need for power enjoys influencing people and events and is more likely to seek positions of authority. socialized power orientation is more likely to result in effective leadership than a personalized power orientation. Managers with a personalized power orientation use power to aggrandize themselves and satisfy their strong need for esteem and status Managers with a socialized power orientation are more emotionally mature. They exercise power more for the benefit of others, are hesitant about using power in a manipulative manner, are less egoistic and defensive, accumulate fewer material possessions, have a longer-range view, and are more willing to take advice from people with relevant expertise. Their strong need for power is expressed by using influence to build up the organization and make it successful.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Narcissism Narcissism is a personality syndrome that includes several traits relevant to effective leadership, such as a strong need for esteem (e.g., prestige, status, attention, admiration, adulation), a strong personalized need for power, low emotional maturity, and low integrity. Because they are so preoccupied with their own ego needs, narcissists have little empathy or concern for the feelings and needs of others. They exploit and manipulate others. Narcissists can be charming and helpful when they want to impress someone who is important, but they are likely to be aggressive and cruel with people who have little power, especially someone who opposes them or stands in their way. Despite the many negative aspects of narcissism, this personality syndrome may also have some positive aspects, at least in limited situations The strong self- confidence and optimism of narcissistic leaders facilitates their efforts to influence others to pursue bold, innovative objectives, which may or may not prove to be feasible and worthwhile.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Achievement Orientation Achievement orientation includes a set of related needs and values, including need for achievement, willingness to assume responsibility, performance orientation, and concern for task objectives. managers with a moderately high amount of achievement motivation are more effective than managers with low achievement motivation, or managers with very high achievement motivation. Compared to managers with a weak achievement orientation, managers with a strong achievement orientation are likely to have a strong concern for task objectives; they are more willing to assume responsibility for solving task-related problems; they are more likely to take the initiative in discovering these problems and acting decisively to solve them; and they prefer solutions that involve moderate levels of risk rather than solutions that are either very risky or very conservative. A strong achievement orientation may also result in behavior that undermines managerial effectiveness. If need for achievement is the dominant motive, it is likely that a manager will seek personal achievement and advancement rather than achievements by the team or work unit.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (1 of 3) Need for Affiliation people with a strong need for affiliation receive great satisfaction from being liked and accepted by others, and they enjoy working with people who are friendly and cooperative. Most studies find a negative correlation between the need for affiliation and managerial effectiveness. – These managers are concerned primarily about interpersonal relationships rather than the task, and they are unwilling to allow the work to interfere with harmonious relationships – They seek to avoid conflicts or smooth them over rather than confront genuine differences. They avoid making necessary but unpopular decisions. – They dispense rewards in a way designed to gain approval, rather than rewarding effective performance. – They show favoritism to personal friends in making assignments and allowing exceptions to rules. It is clearly undesirable for a manager to have a strong need for affiliation, but a very low need for affiliation can also have undesirable consequences. A person with low need for affiliation tends to be a “loner” who does not like to socialize with others, except perhaps the immediate family or a few close friends. This type of person may lack the motivation to engage in the many social and public relations activities that are essential for a manager, including those involved in establishing effective interpersonal relationships with subordinates, superiors, and peers.  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (3 of 3) TABLE 7-2 Correspondence of the Big Five Traits with Specific Traits Big Five Personality Traits Specific Traits Surgency (Extroversion) Extroversion (outgoing) Energy/Activity Level Need for Power (assertive) Conscientiousness (Dependability) Dependability Personal Integrity Need for Achievement Agreeableness Cheerful and Optimistic Nurturance (sympathetic, helpful) Need for Affiliation Adjustment (neuroticism) Emotional Stability Self-Esteem Self-Control Intellectance (Openness to experience) Curious and Inquisitive Open Minded Learning Oriented Based on Hogan, Curphy, & Hogan (1994).  Personality Traits and Effective Leadership (2 of 3) Reviews and meta-analyses of studies on the five factors find that most of them are related to leader emergence and effectiveness. Effective leaders had higher scores on extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness to learning from experience, and lower scores on neuroticism. Not all scholars agree that the Big Five model of personality is better than taxonomies with more specific traits  Skills and Effective Leadership (1 of 2) 1. Technical Skills 2. Conceptual Skills 3. Interpersonal Skills (Social Skills) 4. Political Skill  Skills and Effective Leadership (2 of 2) TABLE 7-3 Three-Factor Taxonomy of Broadly Defined Skills Technical Skills: Knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques for conducting a specialized activity, and the ability to use tools and equipment relevant to that activity Interpersonal Skills: Knowledge about human behavior and interpersonal processes, ability to understand the feelings, attitudes, and motives of others from what they say and do (empathy, social sensitivity), ability to communicate clearly and effectively (speech fluency, persuasiveness), and ability to establish effective and cooperative relationships (tact, diplomacy, listening skill, knowledge about acceptable social behavior) Conceptual Skills: General analytical ability, logical thinking, proficiency in concept formation and conceptualization of complex and ambiguous relationships, creativity in idea generation and problem solving, ability to analyze events and perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize opportunities and potential problems (inductive and deductive reasoning)  Skills and Effective Leadership (2 of 2) TABLE 7-3 Three-Factor Taxonomy of Broadly Defined Skills Political Skills: Political skill involves “the ability to effectively understand others at work, and to use such knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives”. The dimensions of political skill include social astuteness, interpersonal influence, networking ability, and apparent sincerity. Social astuteness involves the ability to understand social interactions and interpret one’s own and others’ behavior in social settings. Interpersonal influence stems from the ability of politically skilled persons to adapt and calibrate their behavior to fit the situation and elicit desired responses from others. Networking ability involves the ability to form and use diverse social networks with others; politically skilled persons develop friendships easily and build strong and beneficial coalitions and alliances that enable them to create and take advantage of opportunities.  Managerial Competencies Competencies are frequently used to describe desirable attributes for managers in a particular company or profession. Examples include emotional intelligence, social intelligence, and learning ability. 1. Emotional Intelligence 2. Social Intelligence 3. Learning Ability What does Emotional Intelligence encompass? ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.  Managerial Competencies 1. Emotional Intelligence 2. Social Intelligence 3. Learning Ability  Managerial Competencies Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence includes several interrelated component skills. – Empathy is the ability to recognize moods and emotions in others, to differentiate between genuine and false expression of emotions, and to understand how someone is reacting to your emotions and behavior. – Self-regulation is the ability to channel emotions into behavior that is appropriate for the situation, rather than responding with impulsive behavior (e.g., lashing out at someone who made you angry, or withdrawing into a state of depression) – Emotional self-awareness is an understanding of one’s own moods and emotions, how they evolve and change over time, and the implications for task performance and interpersonal relationships. – Emotional intelligence that requires both self-awareness and communication skills is the ability to accurately express one’s feelings to others with language and nonverbal communication (e.g., facial expressions, gestures).  Managerial Competencies Social Intelligence Social intelligence is defined as the ability to determine the requirements for leadership in a particular situation and select an appropriate response The two primary components of social intelligence are social perceptiveness and behavioral flexibility. Social perceptiveness involves the conceptual skills and specific knowledge needed for strategic leadership, including the ability to identify threats and opportunities that are jointly determined by environmental events and the core competencies of the organization, and the ability to formulate an appropriate response. Social perceptiveness also involves interpersonal skills (e.g., empathy, social sensitivity, understanding of group processes) and knowledge of the organization (structure, culture, power relationships), which jointly determine whether it is feasible to initiate change and the best way. Behavioral flexibility is the ability and willingness to vary one’s behavior to accommodate situational requirements  Managerial Competencies Learning Ability leaders must be flexible enough to learn from mistakes, change their assumptions and beliefs, and refine their mental models. It involves “learning how to learn,” which is the ability to introspectively analyze your own cognitive processes (e.g., the way you define and solve problems) and to find ways to improve them. It also involves self-awareness, which is an understanding of your own strengths and limitations (including both skills and emotions). Traits that appear relevant include achievement orientation, emotional stability, and an internal locus of control orientation. Managers with these traits are motivated to achieve excellence; they are inquisitive and open-minded; they have the confidence and curiosity to experiment with new approaches; and they actively seek feedback about their strengths and weaknesses.  Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills 1. Levels of Management 2. Type of Organization 3. Stress on the Leader 4. External Environment  Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills Levels of Management Managerial level affects not only the relevance of the three broad categories of skills described earlier (i.e., conceptual, interpersonal, technical), but also the relative importance of specific types of skills within each category The skill requirements for managers at each level vary somewhat depending on the type of organization, its size, the organization structure, and the degree of centralization of authority For example, technical skills are more important for top executives in organizations where operating decisions are highly centralized. More conceptual skills are needed by middle- and lower-level managers who are expected to participate in strategic planning, product innovation, and leading change.  Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills Type of Organization An interesting question about managerial skills is the extent to which they are transferable from one type of organization to another. Top-level managers with ample human relations and conceptual skills can be shifted from one industry to another with great ease and no loss of effectiveness. In general, it seems to be more difficult for an executive to make a successful transition to a different industry or type of organization, especially if the new position requires extensive technical expertise and an extensive network of external contacts  Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills Stress on the Leader Cognitive resources theory by Fiedler describes the conditions under which leader intelligence and experience are related to group performance. According to the theory, stress for the leader moderates the relation between leader intelligence and subordinate performance. Under low stress, leader intelligence facilitates information processing and problem solving, and it is likely to improve the quality of leader decisions. However, when there is high interpersonal stress, strong emotions are likely to disrupt cognitive information processing and make intelligence difficult to apply.  Situational Relevance of Traits and Skills External Environment The skills needed to lead an organization with a stable, supportive environment are not identical to the skills needed to lead an organization facing a turbulent, competitive environment. As the pace of globalization, technological development, and social change continues to increase, so will the premium on competencies such as cognitive complexity, empathy, self-awareness, cultural sensitivity, behavioral flexibility, systems thinking, and the ability to learn from experience and adapt to change.  Evaluation of the Trait Approach (1 of 2) 1. Considerable progress has been made in identifying traits and skills relevant for managerial effectiveness and advancement. 2. Nevertheless, this line of research has been hindered by some methodological and conceptual limitations.  Evaluation of the Trait Approach (2 of 2) TABLE 7-4 Negative Aspects of Very Low or Very High Trait Scores Self-confidence Too little: indecisive, avoids risks, and does not seek to influence others Too much: arrogant, acts too quickly, and takes too many risks Need for Esteem Too little: does not seek recognition or build a reputation for high expertise and reliability Too much: preoccupied with reputation and status, exaggerates achievements, covers up mistakes and failures or blames others Need for Affiliation Too little: does not try to form strong relationships or build a social support network Too much: overly concerned about being liked and accepted by others, overuses ingratiation, and will not risk popularity by asking for sacrifices or insisting on better performance Need for Independence Too little: dependent on others for direction, rule oriented, avoids taking initiative Too much: resents authority, too quick to ignore rules and standard procedures Altruism (value) Too little: selfish, indifferent about the needs of others, may exploit them for personal gain Too much: overly generous and forgiving, unable to ask for sacrifices or maintain discipline Performance Orientation (value) Too little: accepts weak performance and does not push for improvement Too much: is a perfectionist and is overly demanding and never satisfied  Guidelines for Leaders (1 of 2) TABLE 7-5 Guidelines for Understanding and Improving Relevant Competencies Learn about your strengths and weaknesses. Maintain self-awareness. Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position. Remember that a strength can become a weakness. Compensate for weaknesses.  Guidelines for Leaders (2 of 2) 1. Learn about your strengths and weaknesses. 2. Maintain a high level of self-awareness. 3. Identify and develop skills relevant for a future leadership position. 4. Remember that a strength can become a weakness. 5. Compensate for weaknesses.