Atomic and Nuclear Physics PDF Lecture Notes

1- Atomic and Nuclear Physics Dr. Ehab Hegazy 1  Modern Physics- Introduction “Modern” – 20th Century By the end of the 19th century it seemed that all the laws of physics were known – planetary motion was understood – the laws of electricity an...

1- Atomic and Nuclear Physics Dr. Ehab Hegazy 1  Modern Physics- Introduction “Modern” – 20th Century By the end of the 19th century it seemed that all the laws of physics were known – planetary motion was understood – the laws of electricity and magnetism were known – the conservation principles were established However, there were a few problems where classical physics didn’t seem to work It became obvious that Newton’s laws could not explain phenomena at the level of atoms 2  ATOMS and classical physics In the classical picture, the electrons in atoms orbit around the nucleus just as the planets orbit around the Sun. However, the laws of mechanics and electromagnetism predict that an orbiting electron should continually radiate electromagnetic waves, and very quickly the electron would loose all of its energy and collapse into the nucleus. Classically, there could be no atoms! 3  Problems with Newton’s Laws Newton’s laws, which were so successful in allowing us to understand the behavior of big objects such as the motions of the planets, could not explain phenomena at the atomic level This is not too surprising since Newton’s laws were discovered by considering the behavior of macroscopic objects, like planets Physical “laws” have a limited range of applicability, and must continually be tested to find their limitations, and then modified 4 Newton’s laws fail at high velocities accelerate to K measure v Classical Electron velocity / c prediction Relativistic prediction Einstein showed that mass is not a constant, but depends on speed DATA As speed increases, so does mass Speed can never exceed the speed Kinetic Energy (J) of light, c 5  The failure of the “old” physics We will now discuss an example of an effect that could not be explained by the pre- 20th century laws of physics. The discovery of the correct explanation led to a revolution in the way we think about light and matter, particles and waves The new concepts also led to a revolution in technology that has changed our lives, e.g., the semiconductor led to the introduction of the personal computes, cell phones, etc. 6  The photoelectric effect- photons photoelectrons LIGHT Metal plate When light shines on a metal surface, electrons may pop out Photoelectrons are only emitted if the wavelength of the light is shorter than some maximum value, no matter how intense the light is, so the color (wavelength) is critical blue light makes electrons pop out, red light does not 7 Details of a photocell 8  Photocells used as a safety device Sending unit The child interrupts the beam, stopping the current, which causes the motor to stop. 9  No classical explanation for the photoelectric effect According to electromagnetic wave theory, if the intensity of the light is sufficiently high, the electron should be able to absorb enough energy to escape The wavelength of the light should not make a difference. But the wavelength does matter! 10 Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect A radical idea was needed to explain the photoelectric effect. Light is an electromagnetic wave, but when it interacts with matter (the metal surface) it behaves like a particle Light is a particle called a photon  packets of energy moving at the speed of light! A beam of light is thought of as a beam of photons. 11 Photoelectric effect – PHOTONS The energy of a photon depends on the wavelength or frequency of the light Recall that speed of light = wavelength (l) x frequency (f) Photon energy: E = h f E = Planck’s constant (h) x frequency = h f h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s f = c /l  E = h (c/l) = (hc) / l Shorter wavelength (or higher f ) photons have a higher energy 12  The photon concept explains the photoelectric effect A certain amount of energy is required to remove an electron from a metal A photoelectron is emitted if it absorbs a photon from the light beam that has enough energy (high enough frequency) No matter how many photons hit the electron, if they don’t have the right energy the electron doesn’t come out of the metal 13 Blue and red photons - example How much energy does a photon of wavelength = 350 nm (nanometers) have compared to a photon of wavelength = 700 nm? Solution: The shorter wavelength photon has the higher frequency. The 350 nm photon has twice the frequency as the 700 nm photon. Therefore, the 350 nm photon has twice the energy as the 700 nm photon. 14  The quantum concept The photon concept is a radical departure from classical thinking. In classical physics, energy can come in any amounts In modern physics, energy is QUANTIZED  comes in definite packets  photons of energy h f. In the PE effect, energy is absorbed by the electrons only in discreet amounts 15 Video recorders and digital cameras pixel Electronic cameras convert light into an electric charge using the photoelectric effect A two-dimensional megapixel array of sensors captures the charge and records its intensity on computer memory 16  Niels Bohr explains atoms in 1913 Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, used the quantum concept to explain the nature of the atom Recall that the electron in a hydrogen atom should quickly radiate away all of its energy If this occurred, atoms would emit radiation over a continuous range of wavelengths But, atoms emit light in discreet lines 17  Line spectra of atoms Line spectra are like fingerprints which uniquely identify the atom 18  The Bohr Atom The electrons move in certain allowed, “stationary” orbits or states in which Nucleus then do not radiate. + The electron in a high Ef energy state can make a Ei transition to a lower energy state by emitting a photon whose energy was the The orbits farther from difference in energies of the the nucleus are higher energy states than two states, hf = Ei - Ef the closer ones 19 Line spectra of atomic hydrogen The Bohr model was successful in predicting where all the spectral lines of H should be. 20  Emission and Absorption When an electron jumps from a high energy state to a low energy state it emits a photon  emission spectrum An electron in a low energy state can absorb a photon and move up to a high energy state  absorption spectrum 21  Emission and Absorption + + Electron spontaneously Electron absorbs a jumps to a lower energy photon and jumps to state and emits a photon a higher energy state 22  Quantum Mechanics Niels Bohr was able to predict exactly where the spectral lines of hydrogen would be Bohr’s ideas were a radical departure in thinking His ideas led to the formulation of a new paradigm in physics – Quantum Mechanics (QM) Quantum Mechanics replaces Classical Mechanics as the proper theory to explain atomic level phenomena One of the consequences of QM is that certain quantities which can be known precisely in classical physics, are now subject to “uncertainty” 23