BIOL 430 Fall2024 Learning Objectives

**BIOL 430 Fall2024** **Learning Objectives: Lecture 13 Photosynthesis Light Reactions** 1. Describe the origin and structure of the chloroplast and known in which locations different reactions of photosynthesis occur. 2. Know the structure of chlorophyll and understand what an absorption...

**BIOL 430 Fall2024** **Learning Objectives: Lecture 13 Photosynthesis Light Reactions** 1. Describe the origin and structure of the chloroplast and known in which locations different reactions of photosynthesis occur. 2. Know the structure of chlorophyll and understand what an absorption spectrum is. 3. Define the following terms encountered in describing photosynthesis: photosystem, reaction center, pigment, antenna molecule, charge separation, photolysis, photophosphorylation. 4. Explain the use of NADH and NADPH in the cell, and how they are distinguished. 5. Understand how the energy in a photon of light is captured by pigments in the photosystems, how that energy is transferred between molecules, what that energy is used for by each photosystem, and how electrons are replenished for each photosystem. 6. Describe the role of ferredoxin, and the enzyme ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase in photosystem I. 7. Describe the role of plastoquinone, the cytochrome b6f complex, and plastocyanin in mediating between photosystem I and photosystem II, and the role the cytochrome complex plays in ATP synthesis during photosynthesis. 8. Explain the function, location and role of the water-oxidizing complex in photosynthesis. 9. Describe the process by which plants use the energy in photons of light to make ATP to meet the needs of the cells. 10. Describe similarities and differences between ATP synthase and the proton motive force between mitochondria and chloroplasts. 11. Know the overall rection for photosynthesis. 12. Explain what cyclic photophosphorylation is and how it differs from normal photophosphorylation in terms of products made. **Learning Objectives: Lecture 14 Photosynthesis Calvin Cycle** 1. Describe the three stages of the Calvin cycle, and the input and output of each stage. 2. Be able to identity and describe the use of the following compounds and enzymes in the Calvin cycle: ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, 3-phosphoglycerate, CO2, rubisco, rubisco activase, 1,3-BPG, GAP, DHAP, aldolase, F1,6BP, F6P, G6P, G1P, phosphoglucose isomerase, phosphoglucomutase, transketolase, ribulose 5-phopshate 3. Know the uses of the triose phosphate products of the Calvin cycle and how they are used to both make hexose phosphates and regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphophate; explain how many CO2 are required and how many 'turns' of the cycle and how this gives rise to the overall equation for the reaction of the Calvin cycle. 4. Define an activated sugar nucleotide and give two examples of them used in plants to create starch, sucrose or cellulose. 5. Know the molecules in animals that serve the same function as sucrose and starch do in plants. 6. Describe the role thioredoxin plays in turning on Calvin cycle enzymes in the light. 7. Describe what photorespiration is in plants; why it is called that, the molecular/enzymatic reason that it occurs, and why it is not a desired reaction. 8. Explain how C4 plants get around the photorespiration issue, what types of plants are C4 plants, and why they are called that. **Learning Objectives: Lecture 15 Gluconeogenesis** 1. Define gluconeogenesis, what organisms carry it out, why organisms would perform it, the inputs and outputs of the process, and where it occurs in mammals. 2. Know the structure and function of glycogen. 3. Describe the similarities and differences between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis and explain how highly exergonic reactions in glycolysis can be made to 'run backwards' in gluconeogenesis, and know which steps those are. 4. Know the reactions performed by pyruvate carboxylase, carbonic anhydrase, PEP carboxykinase, FBPase-1, glucose 6-phosphatase. 5. Explain the malate-oxaloacetate shuttle and why it is necessary. 6. Know the subcellular location of glucose 6-phosphatase and be able to describe why the liver but not other cell types express this enzyme. 7. Know the overall reaction equation for gluconeogenesis. 8. Describe how ATP, AMP, citrate and F2-6BP regulate key enzymes in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and why this reciprocal regulation is necessary. 9. Be able to recognize positive and negative allostery from a reaction velocity graph. 10. Understand the synthesis and degradation of F26BP, the enzymes that do it, and how glucagon and insulin alter F26BP levels to regulate glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Be able to predict outcomes on pathway activity due to manipulations of these hormones or pathways. 11. Describe the Cori cycle, its function and the problem it solves. **Learning Objectives: Lecture 16 Glycogen Metabolism** 1. Know the processes that lead to glucose 6-phosphate production and those that use it as a reactant. 2. Be able to explain the roles of the liver and the pancreas in maintaining blood glucose homeostasis. 3. Define glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis and glycogenesis. 4. Know the structure and function of glycogen, how it is stored in cells and in which cells it is predominantly found. 5. Know under what conditions muscle cells would make or degrade glycogen. Know under what conditions the liver would make or degrade glycogen. 6. Know the reactions and enzymes that lead to glycogen breakdown. 7. Be able to describe the formation of a new glycogen molecule, know the reactions and enzymes that lead to glycogen synthesis on a preexisting molecule, and identify the activated sugar carrier used. 8. Write out the reaction equation for glycogen synthesis and be able to compare the metabolic cost of adding a single glucose to glycogen versus metabolizing a single glucose liberated from glycogen. 9. Explain the two conformations of glycogen phosphorylase, and the covalent and allosteric modifications that shift the enzyme between active and inactive conformations in both liver and muscle. Know the enzymes responsible for the covalent modification of glycogen phosphorylase. 10. Explain the two conformations of glycogen synthase, and the covalent and allosteric modifications that shift the enzyme between active and inactive conformations in both liver and muscle. Know the enzymes responsible for the covalent modification of glycogen synthase. 11. Know the hormones glucagon, epinephrine and insulin, where each is produced, and under what conditions these signals are released. 12. Be able to explain the cascade of events by which the receipt of a glucagon or insulin signal by a cell leads activation or inactivation of glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase. Be able to predict outcomes on glycogen breakdown and glycogen synthesis due to manipulations of these hormones or pathways or enzymes. 12. Describe how insulin affects glucose transport in muscle, fast and liver cells and how this leads to a decrease in blood glucose levels. 13. Define type 1 and type 2 diabetes and the difference between them. **Learning Objectives: Lecture 17 Pentose Phosphate Pathway** 1. Define the input and outputs of the pentose phosphate pathway. 2. Know the reaction carried out by glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase and other enzymes in the first phase of the PPP and the products made. 3. Know the reactions carried out by phosphopentose isomerase, phosphopentose epimerase, transketolase, and transaldolase 4. Know the possible uses of the 3- 5- and 6- carbon compounds found in the second phase of the PPP. 5. Describe how glutathione protects cells from ROS and how the PPP contributes to that function.