Learning Theories PDF

Lecture 1. Bruner: - Humans learn (Ruth) - Man developed reflex - react instinctly...

Lecture 1. Bruner: - Humans learn (Ruth) - Man developed reflex - react instinctly - Cumulative learning - substitute for instinctive reflex and compensates Jerome Bruner - Constructivist theory - learning active process ​ The single most characteristic about human beings is that they learn…other species begin their learning afresh each generation, but man is born into a culture that has one of its principals functions the conservation and transmission of past learning. ​ In comparison with other species, man has developed very few reflex mechanisms which enable him to react instinctively to problems and danger posed by their environment. ​ Cumulative learning from one generation to another is the substitute for instinctive reflex and compensates the lack thereof. ​ Constructivist theory – learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. (Discovery learning/3-stage model) Gredler (1997). ​ Learning is a process that individuals typically do not examine unless they have a difficulty. ​ Learning is important for the development of both the individual and society. Thorndike (1931). ​ Man’s ability to change, to learn new things is the most impressive thing that a human can do. Rogers (1990). ​ Learning and taking risks -​ The reason why we take chances is the ability to do so even if one succeed or fail one is learning. -​ Learning things from experience is what makes life interesting and helps one to expand, therefore, take more risks. Psychological definition. ​ Psychologists often define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience. Learning = permanent change result of experience Definitions of learning. ​ A relatively permanent change in response potentiality which occurs because of reinforced behavior (Kimble, 1985) ​ A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience (Feldman, 1990) Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave is a given fashion, which results from practice of other forms of experience (Shuell, 1986) Defining Learning. - Learning is not only about gaining skills and knowledge but is also includes learning values, attitudes, and emotional responses. Definition: ​ Learning is a long-term change – this means that the change that occurs in mental representations/associations live on but are not necessarily permanent. ​ Learning involves mental representations/associations – learning is based in the brain and changes the way we mentally represent information. ​ Learning results from experience - his distinguishes learning from changes due to physiological maturation, fatigue, substance use, or mental illnesses. Learning happens because of interactions with the environment and experiences. ​ Historically - One of the to study how learning influences behaviour was psychologist John B. Watson – Suggested that all behaviours are the result of learning processes. Passive and active learning: ​ Passive learning – when learning occurs because of something happening to the learner. For example, child learning about consequences after an experience. ​ Active learning – learning that occurs when the learner is being actively involved. This includes doing either something physically or thinking about what they are learning. Therefore, the learner needs to take part in an activity or reflect on their experience to learn. Learning Passive Active Learning because Learning because of something happened to active involvement learner  Text Learning. ​ We have the capacity to learn. ​ Makes us what we are. ​ Essential for survival. ​ Leads to change in behaviour and mental associations due to experiences. ​ Refers to change in behaviours which is the overt manifestation of this change. ​ Humans require learning, teaching, and experiences to develop skills like construction, travel, and child-rearing. ​ Humans have made significant advancements, and each generation is becoming more capable due to the accumulated knowledge and experiences. ​ Humans have a greater ability to acquire knowledge and adapt to new environments because most of the human behaviour is learned. ​ Therefore, they can modify actions based on past experiences. ​ The difference between animals and humans is that animal’s learning is less flexible than human learning and so they learn over time. ​ Humans can paint for example, with little training often guided by internal mental images and strategies. Therefore, it involves adaptability and creative thinking.  ​ The unique human capacity for learning: -​ Humans have a special ability to think, adapt, and learn across a wide range of areas. -​ The environment influences what knowledge, and skills humans acquire, but the ability to adapt and learn across various situations is unparalleled in the animal kingdom. ​ Reason for: -​ Growth of civilization. -​ Change in human environments -​ Changing ways of life. Behaviour. ​ if kept secret no one can know that learning has occurred. ​ To know if learning took place, observation needs to take place. ​ That is the main reason why there are certificates, tests, performances and exams are present in our culture. Curiosity. ​ Innate need to discover and understand the world around oneself is a primitive one as old as time. ​ Born curious. ​ Our ancestors were curious – reacted to stimuli around them: pricked, prodded, bit into famed apples, fought wild animals, explored the lay of the land, procreated, found fire, grew crops, built the wheel. ​ Two types of curiosity: 1.​ Epistemic curiosity -​ What helps us survive through time and what we hold strong till the day we die. -​ Innate love for knowledge and discovery. -​ “Our brain and our mind assigns value to this knowledge, so this is usually experienced as a pleasurable thing, with an anticipation of reward in the form of what we learn. Small children want to understand cause and effect very early on. They somehow grasp that every effect is related to some cause, and they want to understand those relations because that helps them to cope with their environment and to make fewer errors in their everyday lives.” (Livio) -​ 2.​ Perceptual curiosity -​ Decreases as we grow and so we take fewer risks or challenges. Curiosity Epistemic Perceptual Innate What we feel  -​ What we feel when we see something that surprises/ puzzles us/ does not match up with something that we thought we knew. Incidental. ​ Most learning occurs as a natural way of life. ​ No-one thinks that they are learning something unless they find themselves in a challenge. ​ It is the most natural activity in homo sapiens. The ultimate aim. ​ To make life comfortable. ​ To achieve a personal sense of order. ​ Leads to control over surroundings. Freedom to learn – Carl Rogers (1969) – principles for facilitating learning. 1.​ Humans have a natural potential to learn. 2.​ Learning takes place when the individual knows that it is relevant to their personal needs. 3.​ Learning that involves a change in self-perception is threatening and tends to be resisted. 4.​ Learning that threatens self-perception is accepted when external threats are minimised. 5.​ When there are no external threats, they see experiences clearly and learn more effectively. 6.​ By doing things helps people to learn better. 7.​ When the individual is able to participate responsibly in the learning process, learning occurs more effectively. 8.​ Learning that lasts more is self-initiated and involve the whole person. 9.​ When self-evaluation is more important, the learner becomes more independent, creative and self-reliant. 10.​The most useful learning is learning about its process, open to experiences, and incorporating to oneself the process of change (Lifelong learning and meta cognition). Instinct VS experience. ​ Most human learning and behaviour is NOT instinctive: -​ Flexibility. -​ More adaptable. -​ Experience -​ Each generation is more capable than the previous one. Frameworks of learning. ​ Theories try to explain why factors have the effects they do on our learning and also help us optimize learning environments and facilitate learning. What is a theory? ​ Not a guess. ​ Fact-based framework that describes a phenomenon. ​ Presents a concept or idea that is testable. ​ Based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence. ​ Explanation about some aspect of human behaviour/natural world which is supported through repeated testing and experiments. ​ Theory-building is important because it provides a framework for analysis, facilitates the efficient development of the field, and is needed for the applicability to practical real-world problems. ​ Four basic criteria: 1.​ Conceptual definitions. 2.​ Domain limitations. 3.​ Relationship-building. 4.​ Predictions. ​ Theories helps find similarities across experiences to increase its abstraction level and its importance. ​ The procedure for good theory-building research follows the definition of theory: it defines the variables, specifies the domain, builds internally consistent relationships, and makes specific predictions. ​ To be a good theory, it must have: 1.​ Uniqueness. 2.​ Comprehensive 3.​ Parsimony, 4.​ Conservation, 5.​ Generalizability, 6.​ Fecundity, (heuristic and applied value) 7.​ Internal consistency, 8.​ Empirical riskiness, and 9.​ abstraction, which apply to all research methods. Psychology theories. ​ Provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions and behaviours. ​ Two key components: 1.​ Describe a behaviour. 2.​ Make predictions about future thoughts, emotions and behaviours. Why theories of Psychology? ​ Valuable information about the history of psychology. ​ Progression of thought on a particular topic. ​ Deeper understanding of current theories. ​ To better understand not only of where psychology has been, but where it might be going in the future. How Theories of Learning Have Evolved over Time ​ Learning started being studied in the late 1800s and the two dominant perspectives were structuralism (e.g., Wilhelm Wundt’s work) and functionalism (e.g., John Dewey’s writings). ​ These are different from each other but share a common weakness that they lacked precise research methods and relied on subjective introspection. ​ Structuralism – focused on understanding the mind by introspection (Thinking about one’s own thoughts) ​ Functionalism – focused on understanding mental process by their purpose and function. ​ Behaviourism – studied observable behaviours and environmental factors (stimuli and responses): -​ They criticised introspection as it lacked objectivity and scientific accuracy and therefore psychology can never be a true science. -​ Behaviourism focused on how environmental factors shape behaviour. -​ Behaviourism showed how rewards and consequences influence learning and also improved teaching and therapy techniques. -​ Limitations – they first believed that learning occurs by doing actions but later on, it was proved that learning happens by observing others (modelling). ​ Social learning theory – people learning by watching and imitating others -​ Their main focus was by observing and modelling behaviours. -​ Later on, it evolved into social cognitive theory by incorporating cognitive processes. ​ Cognitive psychology and cognitivism – focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving. -​ Developed objective techniques to study human thought. -​ Improved understanding of how people process information and learn. ​ Jean Piaget: Showed how children’s thinking changes as they grow. ​ Lev Vygotsky: Explored how social and cultural environments shape learning. ​ Gestalt Psychologists: Studied perception and problem-solving. ​ Sociocultural theory – social interaction and culture are important for learning.  -​ The main idea is that people learn from the knowledge passed down through communities and social support systems. ​ Cognitive Neuroscience – thanks to technology, researchers can now study brain functions and development. -​ Their main focus is how the brain affects learning and behaviour and how experiences influence brain development. ​ Human advantage in learning: -​ The human brain is complex, especially the cortex as it is highly advanced. -​ Language skills that help humans communicate and collaborate better than other species. -​ Cultural knowledge that is passed through generations, enhancing learning and change. -​ Social support systems that help us solve problems and learn faster. Behaviouristic Perspectives. ​ Pavlov’s classical conditioning ​ Thorndike’s Connectivism ​ Watson’s behaviorism ​ Hull’s system ​ Guthrie’s Theory ​ Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Interactionist Perspectives ​ Gagne’s Learning Conditions. ​ Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. Developmental Interactionist theories. ​ Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology. ​ Vygotsky Socio-historical theory. Cognitive Perspectives. ​ Gestalt, Lewin, Information Processing, Weiner, Tolman… ​ Jerome Bruner ​ Neuroscience The path to understanding a learning theory. ​ What is the end state? WHAT ? ​ What is motive for change? WHY? ​ What is mechanism for change? HOW?  Main Goals Central Theory of mind Executive ​ How are milestones defined? WHEN? Appropriate Human Functions. ​ Humans are continuously adapting to their environment and constantly strive to learn to understand and to give meaning to be able to achieve ​ This is a main goal in the Homo Sapiens and involved three important elements: 1.​ Central Cohesion -​ Integrating details to understand the situation as a whole meaningful unit. 2.​ Executive function -​ Able to plan and organize. -​ Able to be flexible. -​ Able to anticipate and plan accordingly. 3.​ Theory of Mind. -​ Understanding the intention, beliefs and thoughts of others and yourself. -​ Weak Central Coherence theory (Prof. Uta Firth, 1989) – “A weakness in the operation of central systems that are normally responsible for drawingText together individual pieces of information to establish meaning, resulting in a cognitive bias towards processing local parts of information rather than the overall context”. Learning: ​ Knowledge. ​ Attitudes.  ​ Values. ​ Emotions. ​ Skills. ​ Comprehension. ​ Reflex actions. ​ Appropriate attitudes. ​ Memorizing. ​ Procedures. ​ A 3-step view (How to address new learning and learning transference): 1.​ Thinking – sifting through our experiences to come up with a solution to help us cope and solve the situation. 2.​ Memorizing – it then must be recorded. 3.​ Practice – if the situation occurs again, due to practice, it will make you more proficient, efficient and faster. Edgar Dale (1900-1985). ​ He theorised that learners remember most by what they do rather than hear read and observe. ​ Cone of experience. ​ Learning by doing/experiential/action learning. ​ To only use the rule of thumb. ​ Dale included no numbers and scientific research ​ Learning = Overcoming difficulties. ​ In order to: -​ Be more comfortable. -​ Be more sensible. -​ Have a more meaningful life. -​ Have a sense of order. -​ Avoid ambiguity. ​ In time of drastic change, it is the learners who inherit the future – whilst those who learn find themselves equipped to live in a world that no longer exists. (Hoffer, 1982). Basic Integrities of Learning. ​ For learning to occur without interventions, the individual has to have the right opportunity and the physical ability to do so as these are the prerequisites to learn: 1.​ Proper Opportunity -​ Physical Environment. -​ Social Environment. 2.​ Basic integrities a.​ Psychodynamic factors -​ The psychic and emotional state of the person.  -​ Interrelationship between the mental and emotional motivation. b.​ Peripheral nervous system -​ Involves the cranial and spinal nerves. -​ The senses that carry anything that goes on in the outside world to the brain. c.​ Central nervous system. -​ Brain activity. -​ How much the brain can take and understand what is happening. d.​ Output -​ Motor abilities (overt behaviour). -​ How able is to one perform what is learnt. Common features in the 3 definitions ​ Change (1) - Relatively permanent change’ ‘enduring change’ -​ Involves memory -​ Changes your view/perception of the world and your capacity to survive in it -​ This change will itself again transform as new situation are experienced -​ ‘permanent’ excludes issues of transient change not due to learning - fatigue, maturation, drugs… ​ Experience (2). -​ Reference to the importance of opportunities and the right environment to pave the way for learning. ​ Response (3) – ’response potentiality’ ‘Capacity to behave’ -​ Differentiate between learning and behavior -​ Internalizing the world around us and equipping ourselves with experiences which we might decide to, or not to perform -​ Now everything we learn is behaved or has an impact on behavior -​ Psychologists do not demand a spontaneous change in behavior but in its potential – they will then devise tests to tap this potential and show that learning has taken or will take place. ​ Practice (4) – reinforce behaviour, ‘Practice’. -​ Principle of positive feedback – this ensures repetition of same behavior in similar circumstances -​ The more you practice a behavior, the better at it you become What is missing in these 3 definitions?  ​ Learning is a process by which, in contrast to learning, memory typically refers to the product of change. ​ Memory is necessary but not sufficient to learn. Definitions of Learning refers to: ​ Universal experience ​ Natural desire to learn ​ Happens naturally and spontaneously ​ Humans are always leaning ​ Explore every offering in Life ​ Embraces every aspect of life Importance and advantages of theories. 1.​ Dynamic Nature – theories evolve and adapt, providing accurate understandings of how learning occurs despite never offering a final ultimate truth. 2.​ Advantages over principles: -​ Summarizing research - theories combine results from multiple studies and learning principles (this is also referred to as parsimonious). -​ Guiding research – theories suggest new research questions and hypotheses. -​ Explaining findings – theories help interpret research results meaningfully and make them generalizable. 3.​ Application example – Seligman and Maier Experiment (1967). -​ This experiment demonstrates how theoretical perspectives can provide context to research findings, making them more significant. -​ Experiment setup: o​ Dogs were placed in individual cages and received painful, unpredictable shocks. o​ Two groups were tested: 1.​ Escape Group: Dogs could stop shocks by pressing a panel. 2.​ No-Escape Group: Dogs had no control over stopping the shocks. o​ Dogs were placed in different cages with a noise that follows with an upcoming shock. o​ They could avoid the shock by jumping over a barrier when the tone played. o​ Results showed that the dogs in the Escape Group learned to avoid the shocks and the dogs in the No-Escape Group failed to learn avoidance and passively endured the shocks. Development of the theory of learned helplessness.  ​ People exposed to uncontrollable, unpleasant events may stop trying to avoid such situations later, even when escape is possible. this concept connects to attribution theory. ​ Theories offer insights for creating effective learning and therapeutic environments. -​ Example Application: -​ A teacher aware of the theory that attention is essential for learning may use strategies like: ▪​ Providing engaging materials ▪​ Presenting challenging problems -​ In contrast, focusing solely on the principle that rewards encourage learning may lead to pointless strategies like using irrelevant rewards (e.g., toys) that divert students' attention from learning tasks. Drawbacks of theories. 1.​ No single theory explains all aspects of learning: ​ Theories tend to focus on specific learning aspects: -​ Behaviourist Theories: Focus on observable responses. -​ Cognitive Theories: Explore how individuals interpret, integrate, and remember information. -​ Sociocultural Theories: Examine the role of interpersonal processes and cultural influences. ​ Theorists often ignore or discredit phenomena that don’t align with their chosen perspective. 2.​ Theories Can Bias Published Research: -​ Researchers may avoid publishing findings that challenge their theories. -​ This limits progress toward fully understanding learning processes. 3.​ Strict Ethical Guidelines: ​ Modern researchers must adhere to strict ethical protocols to protect study participants (both humans and animals). ​ Oversight by: -​ Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): For research involving humans -​ Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs): For research involving nonhuman animals. A perspective on theories and principles. ​ Many psychologists align with specific theoretical perspectives. ​ The author, rooted in cognitive psychology traditions, values insights from multiple theories. ​ Readers are encouraged to approach learning theories with an open mind.  ​ Theories evolve as new research emerges, leading to periodic updates in educational materials. ​ No single theory is considered absolute fact. ​ Theories should be evaluated for their usefulness rather than correctness as they hep predict conditions for effective learning. ​ Principles reflect long-standing cause-and-effect relationships in learning. ​ Example: The reward principle, introduced by Edward Thorndike in 1898, remains relevant, though the explanation behind it has evolved over time. ​ Principles and theories help predict when learning will be successful. ​ Even if not perfect, they are important for understanding and improving learning Lecture 2 (Ruth Falzon). The Hierarchy of Experience in Learning. Hierarchy of Experience and Neurodevelopmental Constructs. ​ Sensation/Neuromotor Functions -​ Coordination of motor or muscle functions. -​ Eye hand coordination.  -​ Seen throughout the levels of the hierarchy ​ Attention: -​ Ability to concentrate on one thing rather than the other to finish a task. -​ Sleep/arousal balance. -​ Saliency determination. (Selecting which information is most important) -​ Motivation is needed. ​ Perception/Spatial Ordering: -​ Ability to distinguish between a circle or square. -​ Use images to remember related information. -​ Visual motor integration. -​ Related to time and sequence (Memory). ​ Imagery-memory/Temporal-sequential Ordering -​ Reciting the alphabet. -​ Knowing when to push buttons during quizzes. -​ Understanding time sequence. -​ Sequential awareness and Saliency determination. -​ Depth/detail processing. -​ Idea maintenance. -​ Procedure storage. -​ Pattern recognition/method transfer. -​ Recall. ​ Symbolization/Language: -​ To articulate and understand language. ​ Conceptualization/Higher order cognition -​ Problem solving. -​ Attach new areas of learning. -​ Think creatively. The model. ​ Input -​ Sensation. ​ Integration. -​ Attention. -​ Perception. -​ Imagery. -​ Symbolization. -​ Conceptualization. -​ Metacognition. ​ Output. -​ Behaviour. -​ Monitoring.  -​ Feedback. Steps of the model in brief: 1.​ Sensation: -​ Stimuli thrown at body. -​ Any concrete, conscious experience resulting from stimulation of a specific organ, sensory nerve, or sensory area in the brain. -​ Physical stimulation of sensory receptors. -​ Psychophysics – relations between psychological events and physical events or between sensation and the stimuli that produce them. -​ Can be both internal and external stimuli. -​ PNS level of functioning. -​ Can refer to: 1)​ Vision. 2)​ Hearing. 3)​ Smell 4)​ Taste. 5)​ Touch. 6)​ Vestibular (movement/coordination of eyes head and body). 7)​ Proprioception/Kinesthetic (unconscious awareness of sensations from one’s joints muscles tendons and ligaments - where is each part of the by and how it is moving). 2.​ Attention: -​ Gateway to the brain. -​ A system of: o​ Coping. o​ Ignoring. o​ Focusing. o​ Selection. o​ A gateway to the brain. -​ We can only attend to one cognitive item at a time. -​ Heuristic versus cognitive attention. -​ Series of Cognitive Processes and Constructions​ Limited Processing capacity -​ Ability to attend if limited – prevents human from attending at two demanding tasks at the same time -​ ‘Focused cognitive processing of particular aspects of the environment’ (Ormrod) -​ Filter theory of attention: two phrases heard from each ear: 1.​ Bough Candy at place today. 2.​ Put Rhubarb on store please -​ Would be heard as – Bought candy at store today. -​ Principles of attention: o​ Focusing. o​ Ignoring.  o​ Coping. o​ Selection. -​ Types of attention: o​ Involuntary – reflex is response pattern. o​ Voluntary – motivation is response pattern. o​ Selective – personal interest is response pattern. o​ Habitual – experience is response pattern. o​ Peripheral – sense of background (environment) is response pattern. -​ Determinants of attention: o​ Size. o​ Intensity. o​ Novelty. o​ Regularity. o​ Incongruity. o​ Conditioned/habitual. o​ Changing stimuli. o​ Colours and high sounds. o​ Completed/systematic patterns. o​ Locality. -​ Internal factors: o​ Interest. o​ Personal Significance o​ Physical/Social Deprivation o​ Fatigue o​ Emotion o​ Arousal of interest o​ Personal characteristics o​ Natural tendencies o​ Age o​ Span 3.​Perception: -​ Our interpretation of stimuli. -​ CNS interpretation of incoming stimuli attended to -​ Perception is personalized -​ Effected by our experience -​ ‘We see things not as they are but as we are’ (Kant) -​ Internalized analysis of sensations -​ At the CNS level of Functioning -​ Ongoing Process -​ Interpretation of sensory information -​ What is perception? o​ The way we view the world around us. o​ Adds meaning to the information gathered by the five senses (touch, smell, taste, vision, and hearing). o​ Helps us understand ourselves and our surroundings. o​ (Stephen. P. Robbins) perception refers to the way we try to understand the world around us. a process that helps to organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. -​ Stages of perception: 1.​ 2.​ Selection. 3.​ Organization. 4.​ Interpretation. Sensation Perception. Process of how we receive information The process that interprets the by our five sense that are then information received from the five experienced and interpreted by the senses. brain. Source is the stimuli that is obtain from Source is the information sent to the sensory organs. brain through sensation. Results in perception. Results in interpreting and giving meaning to the information received. A general biological procedure. Has a more psychological significance since the person’s past experiences and ideologies effect directly. Continue perception: -​ Principles of Gestalt Law of Organization: o​ Organization. o​ Meaning. o​ Simplicity/minimum principle. o​ Pragnanz. -​ Facets of grouping: perceiving more defined stable symmetrical simple and more meaningful structures: o​ Similarity. o​ Proximity. o​ Closure. o​ Continuity. -​ Depth Perception (enables us to judge distances) - Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. -​ Perceptual constancy: o​ Ability to perceive objects as unvarying (stable) despite changes in their appearance/surroundings. o​ 2 types: 1.​ Brightness and colour. 2.​ Size and shape. o​ Two main theories of explanation: 1.​ Unconscious inference theory – experience. ▪​ As we develop, we learn the general size of objects through experience and use this knowledge to help judge size of other objects. ▪​ We take distance into consideration when judging the size of an object. Thus, if two objects have the same retinal image size, the object that seems farther away will be perceived. ▪​ Infants possess size constancy. 2.​ Ecological theory - relative sizes of objects. ▪​ We see objects as the same size at different distances because they stay the same size relative to surrounding objects.  ▪​ Example 1 - as we drive toward a stop sign, the retinal image sizes of the stop sign relative to a nearby tree remain constant – both images grow larger at the same rate. ▪​ Example 2 – as we move towards a person. ▪​ Example 3 – the size of the moon -​ Perceptual illusions o​ Misconceptions due to perceptual constancy. o​ Since you expect something the way it usually is, the brain will ignore the sensation to make sense. -​ Figure ground: o​ The ability to differentiate visually between an object and its background. -object from its surrounding visual field o​ Object that a person focuses on is called the figure; everything else is referred to as background o​ Personalized perception and therefore we act on environment and environment pushes into us o​ Psychologists have created different kinds of stimuli in order to study how people separate figures from ground. o​ Proves how personal and active perception is. 4.​ Imagery: Perception + Memory. -​ Not ongoing – builds on already perceived. -​ Stimuli occurs without a presence of a stimuli. -​ Criteria – must be remembered and already experience and perceived. 5.​Symbolization: How we represent experiences (Communication). -​ Representation – something standing for something else -​ E.g. Verbal – language -​ Non-verbal – At religion music Social cognition -​ Also covers time size. distance volume shape height speed, numbers, Math signs -​ Involves Inner language 6.​Conceptualisation: Categorized reasoning. -​ Abstraction + Classification -​ From mere reasoning to high levels of creativity -​ Language aids conceptualization -​ Ability to conceptualize is a salient feature of that which makes man Man, but even so, here are many gaps in our knowledge concerning this aspect of human behavior (Anderson). -​ Starts as early as 3 months -​ A class of objects or events that share one or more similarities -​ Concepts have to be linked to a particular label.  -​ This is why in the Hierarchy of Experience conceptualized follows not -​ precedes symbolization. -​ Concrete – cow smooth, color -​ Abstract – courage, intelligence -​ Development-wise one moves from concrete to the abstract though a process of generalization and discrimination -​ Why concepts? o​ Coping with world’s complexity o​ Facilitation to generalizations to new situations, which help us predict what may be forthcoming and overlay with new situation o​ Enhance thought power o​ Creates inter-relationships and links o​ Sometimes conceptual link does not work with our predictions -​ Characteristics of a concept: o​ Positive/Negative Instances (what makes or does not make a concept – under/overgeneralization) o​ Features (Attributes): ▪​ Defining (critical features). ▪​ Correlational features – often but not essential. ▪​ Irrelevant features. o​ Rules -​ What affects concept learning? 1.​ Salience of defining Features 2.​ From Concrete to abstract 3.​ Defining and Correlational features -​ Bird versus pigeon. -​ Fruit versus vegetables 4.​ Number of irrelevant features -​ What is or is not a mammal? -​ Live Birth/lays eggs? -​ Gives milk to its suckling. 5.​ Positive/Negative Instances - In learning situation it is better to present more positive instances, and best to present both. This leads to correct generalization 6.​ Timing of Presentation of Instances - Simultaneous presentations provide less stress on memory. In everyday more sequential over minutes, days months years 7.​ Metacognition: How did I process? -​ (Jerome Bruner) – “Thinking about thinking” has to be a principal ingredient of any empowering practice of education. -​ Thinking about one’s thinking. -​ Ideas. -​ Resources. -​ Strategies. -​ Self-regulation, memory and study skills. -​ Processes used to plan, monitor, assess one’s understanding/performance. -​ Critical awareness of one’s thinking/learning and as a thinker/learner. -​ Recognizing limit of one’s knowledge or ability and how to expand it. -​ History. (Baker & Brown, 1984, Flavell (1985). - If experts display metacognitive thinking, can these thought processes then be taught to novices to improve their learning (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). -​ Metacognitive competencies. o​ Increase students’ abilities to transfer or adapt their learning to new contexts and tasks by gaining a level of awareness above the subject matter. o​ Think about tasks & contexts of different learning situations and themselves as learners in these different contexts.  o​ “Students who know about the different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more likely to use them” (Pintrich,2002) o​ “Know about” these strategies, not just practice them. o​ “Conscious meta-strategic level of Higher Order Thinking]” (Zohar and David (2009). o​ Those who know their strengths and weaknesses in these areas will be more likely to “actively monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular tasks and performances” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking). -​ Why Metacognition? o​ Independent learning: self-guided questions, routines, schemes o​ Self-awareness – Metacognition is self-regulation o​ Challenges self-generated biases – Challenging our own biases and reactions central element to understanding how we react to tasks rather than having an emotional breakdown. o​ Clarify and develop goals –plan, review and achieve their goals, recognising next steps and identifying gaps in their learning, or study skills, that require attention. o​ Recognise own strengths and weaknesses –self-critical assessment of skills and learning - recognise skills/learning for mastery AND what require further improvement o​ Positive task outcomes - the tools, and internal conversation to understand and how to address barriers o​ Problem-solving skills – Metacognition offers an internal framework for individuals when dealing with problems, in any problem-solving situation, especially within education. o​ Positive and meaningful increases in achievement – Research notes that utilising metacognition has a positive increase in achievement o​ Achieves a pedagogical impact score of d=0,69 – Considered most impactful strategies teachers can undertake to help the progress of their students. o​ Accessible to all ages and ranges. o​ Using mistakes to reflect on the structure and coherence of one’s own actions (Hattie and Zierer 2018) – explore and recognise where mistakes were made, and the steps to overcome such errors in the future. o​ Study skills – guidance and internal questions.  Lecture 3 Social Learning/cognition Theory – Albert Bandura. Social learning theory. ​ Neal Miller and John Dollard pioneered the systematic study of learning through observation and imitation in 1941. ​ Albert Bandura’s research in the 1960s separated modelling and imitation theory from behaviourism. ​ Key contributors to Bandura's framework include Dale Schunk and Barry Zimmerman. ​ Social cognitive theory focuses primarily on human learning, setting aside animal-based studies. ​ Social learning theory approaches the explanation of human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental determinants. ​ Observations show that using symbolic and live models helps speed up learning through vicarious learning and guided responses in social learning. ​ In social learning under naturalistic conditions, responses are typically acquired through modelling in large segments or in toto, rather than in piecemeal, trial and error fashion ​ Learning would be very difficult and risky if people only learned from their own actions. ​ General principles: ​ Most behaviour is learned by watching others. Observing others helps people understand how to act and guides future actions. ​ Learning can occur solely through observation, without any immediate or observable behaviour change. ​ Why also cognitive? -​ Cognitive factors, such as awareness of consequences and expectations of outcomes, are critical to learning. -​ Processes like attention and memory (retention) are integral to understanding how learning occurs. -​ Learning without performance. -​ Expectations.  ​ Unlike behaviourist views, social cognitive theory asserts that people can intentionally shape or modify their environment. ​ Humans possess personal agency, enabling them to influence their circumstances through conscious efforts and by seeking assistance. ​ Summary of social learning theory: -​ Focus: Learning happens in a social context. -​ Natural Settings: Emphasizes learning through everyday interactions. -​ Key Concepts: Observational learning, imitation, and modelling. -​ Reciprocal Causation: Behaviour, personal factors, and environment influence each other. ​ It consists of: -​ Attitudes -​ Dependency -​ Self-reliance -​ Fearfulness -​ Aggressiveness -​ Formation of conscience -​ Gender appropriate behavior Environmental Factors in Social Cognitive Theory: Revisiting Reinforcement and Punishment Operant Conditioning and Imitation: ​ Neal Miller and John Dollard (1941) proposed that imitation occurs because people are reinforced for copying behaviours. ​ The model’s behaviour acts as a discriminative stimulus, prompting an imitative response. ​ Reinforcement sustains imitation, leading to a habit called generalized imitation. Reinforcement Mechanisms: ​ Reinforcement by the model: o​ Example: A child saying "up" to be lifted is reinforced by being picked up. o​ Social groups may accept individuals who imitate their behaviour (e.g., teens dressing similarly). ​ Reinforcement by a third person: o​ A learner may be praised by others for modelling behaviour (e.g., a parent praising a child for dressing like a sibling).  o​ Cultural examples: Beatles-inspired haircuts reinforced by peer approval during the 1960s. ​ Self-reinforcement: o​ Imitated behaviour often leads to satisfying outcomes (e.g., successful Spanish communication or correct tennis techniques). ​ Vicarious reinforcement/punishment: o​ Observing others being rewarded or punished influences behaviour (e.g., Andy learning to play guitar after seeing Adam gain popularity). Bandura's Study on Vicarious Learning: ​ Children watched a film of a model behaving aggressively toward a punching doll: -​ Group 1: Model was reinforced for aggression — children showed increased aggression. -​ Group 2: Model was punished — children showed the least aggression. -​ Group 3: Model received no consequence — moderate aggression observed. ​ Conclusion: Observing consequences influences behaviour through vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment. Cognitive aspects of social cognitive theory. 1.​ Learning Through Mental Change ​ Learning often occurs mentally rather than behaviourally. ​ People can learn by observation without immediately imitating behaviour (vicarious acquisition). ​ Motivation plays a role—people may only perform observed behaviours if they have a reason. 2.​ Cognitive Processes in Learning ​ Key processes: attention, mental rehearsal, and forming memory codes of modelled behaviour. ​ Learners must recognize connections between their behaviour and consequences for reinforcement or punishment to be effective. 3.​ Response–Consequence Awareness and Expectations ​ Learners form expectations about future consequences based on prior experiences or observing others. ​ These expectations influence behaviour and the motivation to act. 4.​ Efficacy Beliefs ​ Self-efficacy reflects learners' beliefs in their ability to succeed at specific tasks. ​ Confidence in ability affects how much effort learners invest in challenging activities. 5.​ Non-occurrence of Expected Consequences ​ When expected reinforcement doesn’t happen, it can feel punishing; absence of expected punishment can feel rewarding. ​ Observing models who face no consequences for misbehaviour can encourage similar behaviour in others Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors 1.​ Attention processes during learning 2.​ Retention processes 3.​ Behavioral production processes 4.​ Motivational Processes  5.​ Reciprocal causation Reciprocal Causation Behaviour, personal factors, and environmental conditions interact and influence each other: ​ Environment (E): Conditions, stimuli, reinforcement, and punishment. ​ Person (P): Individual traits, cognitive processes, roles, and perceptions. ​ Behaviour (B): Observable actions and reactions. This dynamic interaction, termed reciprocal causation, illustrates how each factor shapes and is shaped by the others over time. Example: Modelling ​ When learners observe a model’s behaviour, they form expectations and adjust their own actions based on the observed consequences for the model. ​ Effective learning environments recognize the balance between behaviour, personal beliefs, and environmental factors. Modeling. ​ Infants as young as a few days old can imitate facial expressions. ​ This early ability may be linked to mirror neurons, suggesting humans are biologically predisposed to imitate behaviours across all cultures. ​ Modelling is defined as the demonstration of behaviours by a model or the mimicry by an observer. ​ A subject observes a model (ideal, standard, example) and attempts to imitate behavior. Bandura feels that this procedure is a fundamental learning process involved in socialization. ​ Effect from the environment: 1.​ The model reinforces the observer. 2.​ A third person reinforces the observer. 3.​ The behavior itself has positive consequences – making life more comfortable/satisfying to the individual. 4.​ Reinforcement to the model (vicarious) ​ Vicarious reinforcement: -​ Conveys information about which behaviors are appropriate in which settings. -​ Arousal of the emotional response of pleasure and satisfaction in the observer -​ After repeated reinforcement, incentive motivational effects are generated. The behavior acquires functional value. -​ Conveys information about which behaviors are inappropriate in which settings. -​ Tends to exert restraining influence on imitation of modelled behavior (inhibitory effect) -​ Tends to devalue the model’s status since functional behavior was not transmitted. ​ Modelling plays a critical role in teaching and reinforcing behaviours. ​ Effects of Modelling on Behaviour: -​ Teaching New Behaviours - Observing others helps individuals acquire completely new skills, such as pronouncing new words or learning physical activities. (Eliciting effect – teaches new behaviours) -​ Influencing Frequency of Learned Behaviours: o​ Facilitation Effect: Vicarious reinforcement increases behaviour frequency when models are rewarded. (Strengthens learners existent restraint) o​ Inhibition Effect: Vicarious punishment reduces behaviour frequency when models are punished. (Weakens learners’ existent restraints) -​ Encouraging Forbidden Behaviours:  o​ Disinhibition Effect: encourages previously forbidden behaviour. Increases frequency of similar behaviour. o​ Example: Viewers of aggressive films showed increased aggressive behaviour in experimental settings. -​ Increasing Frequency of Similar Behaviours: Observation of a model may inspire related actions. o​ Example: A child unable to mimic a sibling’s basketball success may strive for excellence in another sport. -​ Many behaviours can be learned, partly or in toto, through modelling. ​ Four Processes Essential for Learning Through Modelling 1.​ Attention: The observer must focus on the model’s behaviour. 2.​ Retention: Mental rehearsal and encoding are necessary for remembering the observed behaviour. 3.​ Reproduction: The observer must have the ability to replicate the model’s actions. 4.​ Motivation: The likelihood of performing the observed behaviour depends on perceived reinforcement or punishment. ​ Modelling not only aids in learning new actions but also shapes individuals' decision-making processes and responses based on the behaviours and consequences they observe. Types of models identified by Bandura: 1.​ Live Model - An actual person demonstrating a behaviour directly observed by the learner. 2.​ Symbolic Model - A character or figure portrayed in media such as books, films, TV shows, or games. Example: Children modelling behaviours after Harry Potter or Dora the Explorer. 3.​ Verbal Instructions - Descriptions or directions on how to behave, without a model being physically present Characteristics of Effective Models. 1.​ Competence: Learners are more likely to imitate individuals who demonstrate skill and knowledge. Examples: -​ A novice tennis player models techniques of an accomplished player rather than an unskilled peer. 2.​ Prestige and Power: Models with high status, respect, or authority are more influential. Example: -​ Children are more likely to mimic social interactions initiated by popular peers rather than less popular ones.  3.​ Gender Stereotyping: Behaviour imitation often aligns with traditional gender roles. Example: -​ Boys are more likely to mimic aggressive behaviours than girls, reflecting societal norms that view aggression as more appropriate for males. -​ Counter-Stereotypical Behaviours - Exposure to diverse role models can challenge traditional gender norms, showing young learners that behaviours are not inherently gender-specific. -​ 4.​ Relevance to the Observer: Learners imitate behaviours from models perceived as similar to themselves or when the behaviour aligns with their life circumstances. Example: -​ Adolescents might model peer behaviours but reject parental behaviours that seem socially inappropriate for their age group. Ways Modelling affects behaviour. 1.​ Acquisition of Psychomotor Behaviours: ​ Modelling plays a crucial role in learning both simple (e.g., brushing teeth) and complex actions (e.g., dance routines, gymnastics). Examples include: -​ Learning social skills by watching videos. -​ Children responding emotionally to stimuli based on how others (e.g., parents) react. 2.​ Academic Skills: ​ Students often learn academic skills (e.g., drawing, solving problems, writing essays) by observing others demonstrate these skills. ​ Cognitive Modelling - When a model not only demonstrates the task but also explains their thinking process, it enhances learning. -​ Example: A teacher might explain each step in solving a long division problem, such as deciding what number to divide into, testing different numbers, and choosing the correct one. 3.​ Aggression: Research shows that children become more aggressive when they observe aggressive behaviour in others (e.g., films, video games). ​ Studies on Aggression (Bandura, 1961): -​ Children who saw an aggressive model were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviours, while those who saw a nonaggressive model exhibited fewer aggressive behaviours. -​ Nonaggressive models can reduce aggressive behaviour in children. 4.​ Interpersonal Behaviours: ​ Children learn strategies for engaging in discussions and social interactions by observing others. Example:  -​ Children might adopt strategies for asking opinions, agreeing/disagreeing, and justifying viewpoints when discussing literature in groups. ​ Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Children with autism may improve social skills by observing a peer engaging in positive social behaviours. ​ Generosity can be learned by observing others behave selflessly. -​ Example: In a study, children who saw a model donate tokens to a disadvantaged child were more likely to donate themselves. This generosity was sustained over time. 5.​ Impact of Media Models: ​ Prosocial Media Models: Some media characters promote behaviours such as cooperation, sympathy, and sharing, leading children to model these positive behaviours. -​ Example: Children who watched Mister Rogers' Neighbourhood exhibited more socially appropriate behaviour and less aggression compared to those watching aggressive shows. 6.​ Consistency Between Words and Actions: ​ When a model’s actions contradict their words, children are more likely to imitate the actions rather than the words. ​ Effective models need to "practice what they preach" to ensure their behaviour influences others. Conclusion from Bryan’s Study (1975): Children are more likely to imitate behaviours they see practiced by a model rather than the behaviours they are told to engage in. The four conditions necessary for effective modelling, as suggested by Bandura, are: 1.​ Attention: Learners must focus on the relevant aspects of the model's behaviour to replicate it accurately. For instance, to learn how to swing a golf club, one should pay attention to the proper stance, grip, and movement, rather than irrelevant aspects like the model's clothing. 2.​ Retention: After observing a behaviour, the learner needs to store it in memory. This can be achieved through rehearsal (e.g., repeating steps of an action) and forming verbal or visual memory codes. For example, a swimming teacher might use verbal labels for arm movements to help the learner remember the sequence.  3.​ Motor Reproduction: Learners must have the physical ability to replicate the behaviour. If a person lacks the physical capacity to perform an observed behaviour, they cannot effectively model it. Immediate practice and feedback while observing the model can aid in replicating the behaviour more effectively. 4.​ Motivation: Learners need a reason to want to imitate the behaviour. This motivation can stem from the expected benefits or rewards of performing the behaviour. Children, for example, may not imitate every behaviour they observe, even if it’s modelled by parents or teachers, unless they have a motive to do so. Bandura emphasized that individual differences influence how these conditions are met, and the absence of even one of these conditions can prevent modelling from occurring effectively. A related concept, self-efficacy, plays a significant role in motivation, as learners are more likely to model behaviours, they believe they are capable of performing. How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling: Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: 1.​ Direct reinforcement of the observer is reinforced by the model. 2.​ The observer is reinforced by a third person 3.​ Self-reinforcement - The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. 4.​ Vicarious reinforcement - Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously The Bobo Doll experiment ​ The Bobo doll experiment was conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and studied patterns of behavior associated with aggression. ​ Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. ​ The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. ​ Lastly, the evidence strongly supports that males tend to be more aggressive than females. Self-regulated behaviour. ​ According to Bandura, human behavior is largely self-regulated. ​ Among the things that humans learn from direct or vicarious experience are performance standards and these standards once learnt become the basis of self-evaluation. ​ Self-regulation has come to be more emphasized in social learning theory, as Bandura believes that the intrinsic reinforcement that comes from self-evaluation is much more influential than the extrinsic reinforcement dispensed by others. ​ Self-regulation is when the individual has his own ideas about what is appropriate or inappropriate behavior and chooses actions accordingly. ​ social cognitive theory has played a significant role in understanding self-regulation, blending elements of behaviourism and cognitivism. ​ There are several aspects of self-regulation: -​ Setting standards and goals - People set standards for what constitutes acceptable behaviour and set goals they value. These standards are influenced by the behaviour of models they observe -​ Self-observation- Individuals observe their own actions, looking for aspects that need improvement. -​ Self-judge - People judge their behaviour based on their own standards, not just those set by others. -​ Self-reaction - Individuals reinforce or punish themselves based on whether they meet their standards (e.g., feeling proud or guilty). -​ Self-reflection: Self-regulating individuals reflect on their goals, successes, failures, and beliefs, adjusting them as necessary. This is considered a distinctly human aspect of self-regulation ​ Promoting self-regulated behaviour: -​ Effortful control: Some people are naturally better at self-regulating, but strategies can help everyone improve. -​ Self-control strategies: Techniques like self-instructions, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement, and self-imposed stimulus control are effective in increasing self-regulation. ​ Self-Instructions: -​ Self-instructions guide behaviour by prompting individuals to repeat helpful phrases (e.g., "see the target" in sports). -​ Meichenbaum's five steps for teaching self-instructions: 1.​ Cognitive modelling: The adult demonstrates the task with verbal instructions. 2.​ Overt external guidance: The child performs the task with verbal guidance from the adult. 3.​ Overt self-guidance: The child repeats the instructions aloud while performing the task. 4.​ Faded, overt self-guidance: The child whispers the instructions. 5.​ Covert self-instruction: The child thinks silently about the instructions. ​ Self-Monitoring:  -​ People can observe and assess their own behaviour, which often leads to behavioural change. -​ Self-monitoring has been found effective in classrooms, where students track their behaviours (e.g., using an electronic beeper) to increase desirable actions or decrease disruptive behaviours. -​ Video technology can enhance self-monitoring, as shown in the case of Charles, a student who changed his behaviour after watching videos of his own disruptive actions. ​ Self-Reinforcement: -​ Self-reinforcement involves rewarding oneself for goal achievement (e.g., taking a break after writing a few pages). -​ It has been shown to improve academic performance, as in the example of students rewarding themselves with points after completing assignments. ​ Self-Imposed Stimulus Control: -​ To increase desired behaviour, individuals can create environments that make the behaviour more likely to occur (e.g., studying in a library instead of on a bed). -​ To decrease undesired behaviour, individuals limit the situations in which they engage in that behaviour (e.g., reducing smoking locations). ​ Cognitive Side of Self-Regulation: -​ Self-regulation also involves cognitive processes like setting goals, self-evaluation, and self-reaction, in addition to behavioural processes. -​ Self-regulated learning refers to the ability to set goals for learning, choose appropriate strategies, monitor progress, and adjust strategies as needed, drawing on cognitive and social cognitive theories. Self-efficacy. ​ People are more likely to engage in certain behaviours when they believe that they are capable of doing the behaviours successfully. ​ This means a high self-efficacy. ​ Like internalized performance standards, perceived self-efficacy plays a major role in self-regulated behavior. ​ Perceived self-efficacy refers to one’s beliefs concerning what one can do, and it arises from a variety of sources including personal accomplishments and failures, seeing others seen as similar fail or success, and verbal persuasion. ​ People with high self-efficacy try more, accomplish more, and persist longer. ​ They tend to experience less fear and less shame. ​ Since they tend to have more control over the events in their environment, they experience less anxiety and uncertainty. ​ In layman's terms self-efficacy could be looked like self-confidence towards learning. ​ Difference from related concepts:  -​ Self-concept addresses the question, "Who am I?" and reflects a person's overall identity. -​ Self-esteem focuses on, "How good am I as a person?" and is linked to a general sense of self-worth. -​ In contrast, self-efficacy is more specific and answers the question, "How well can I do this particular thing?" It reflects confidence in performing a specific task or activity, such as learning to swim or perform a math problem. 2.​ Self-efficacy is task-specific, meaning a person can have high self-efficacy in one area (e.g., learning languages) but low self-efficacy in another (e.g., learning mathematics) 3.​ Self-efficacy is a key factor in motivation and is often a more accurate predictor of performance than general self-concept or self-esteem. Learners with high self-efficacy are more likely to persist in tasks and perform better, which makes it a valuable concept in theories of learning and motivation. 4.​ Studies have shown that self-efficacy is a strong predictor of how well students perform in specific domains, more so than self-concept or self-esteem. How self-efficacy affects learning. ​ Joy of activities - People choose tasks they believe they can do well. For example, students who think they can do well in math are more likely to take math classes. ​ Set goals - People with high self-efficacy set higher goals for themselves. For example, teenagers often choose career goals based on subjects they feel good at. ​ Effort and persistence - When people believe they can succeed, they put in more effort and keep trying even when they face problems. Those with low self-efficacy tend to give up faster and try less. ​ Learning and achievement - Self-efficacy helps people do better, even if they start with similar abilities. The ones who believe they can do something are more likely to succeed. ​ Self-efficacy is important for older students and adults because they need to be independent in learning. Believing in their abilities helps them start and keep working on tasks. ​ It’s good to know what you’re good at and what you need to work on. A little overconfidence can help, as it makes people try harder and take on difficult tasks. ​ Self-Efficacy for Learning vs. Performance: It's important to separate believing you can learn something ("I can learn this if I try") and believing you already know how to do something ("I can do this"). It's better to be positive about learning new things but realistic about what you can already do. ​ If someone doesn’t think they can do something, they’ll set low goals and give up too soon, which hurts their learning.  ​ Overconfidence: If someone is too confident, they might set goals that are too high or not try hard enough. This can also stop them from improving because they don’t see their weaknesses. Four major factors of self-efficacy: 1.​ Performance accomplishments/ previous successes and failures: -​ People’s past successes and failures are the most important factors influencing self-efficacy. If someone has succeeded at a task before, they are more likely to believe they can do it again. -​ Failures, however, can lower self-efficacy, especially if they happen repeatedly. Students who struggle and fail frequently (e.g., students with learning disabilities) may develop a low sense of self-efficacy in that area. 2.​ Vicarious experience ​ People often look at the success or failure of others, especially peers, to assess their own potential. If a classmate succeeds at a task, a student may believe they can succeed too. ​ It’s especially motivating to see peers who initially struggle but eventually succeed. This shows that success requires effort and persistence, and learners can pick up useful strategies from those who struggle and then master the task. ​ Successes and Failures of the Group: ​ People often feel more confident when they are part of a group that works well together and achieves success. Group success can increase collective self-efficacy, meaning the belief that a group as a whole can achieve goals. ​ For example, if a team of teachers believes they can work together to improve student outcomes, they are more likely to try new teaching methods, set higher goals, and put in more effort. As a result, their students are likely to perform better. ​ Group confidence can be important for students too, especially when the group is working well together. However, it’s also important for students to develop skills for independent work and achievement. 3.​ Verbal persuasion. -​ People’s self-efficacy is often influenced by the encouragement or discouragement they receive from others. Positive feedback, like “You can do this if you keep trying,” can boost self-confidence. -​ The way others behave (not just what they say) also affects self-efficacy. 4.​ Psychological state. -​ A person’s current physical condition (like being tired or nervous) can influence their confidence in completing a task. If someone feels nervous or anxious, they might believe they can’t do something, even if their nervousness is unrelated to the task itself.  -​ For example, feeling jittery before a test might lower a student’s confidence, even if the anxiety comes from personal stress rather than the test itself. Educational implications of social learning theory 1.​ Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. 2.​ Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. 3.​ Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. 4.​ Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5.​ Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. 6.​ Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks 7.​ Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. 8.​ Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student behavior. Critique of Bandura: ​ Too wide of a theory as it addresses problems in memory, learning, language, motivation, personality, moral conduct, psychological dysfunctions and media influences. Lecture 4. Motivation, Affect, and their Effects. Motivation. ​ Motivation is an internal state that initiates, directs, and sustains actions and behaviors. (Motivation = direct and energise) ​ It is an internal state that arouses us to action, pushes us into particular decisions and keep us engaged in certain activities.  ​ It affects how much effort they put into learning and completing tasks. ​ Types of motivated behaviours: -​ Some activities are done because they are fun (intrinsic enjoyment) (like writing or watching favorite shows). -​ Others are done for rewards (extrinsic) (like filing taxes or keeping relationships). -​ Activities that are boring or offer no rewards are usually avoided. ​ Even when capable of learning, motivation determines whether an individual will pursue and retain new knowledge or skills. ​ Motivation also governs continued engagement in learned activities. ​ Motivations can be approach-oriented (desiring success) or avoidance-oriented (avoiding failure or negative situations). ​ Motivation is influenced by the learning environment, including instructional materials, student interactions, and assessment methods. ​ This dynamic is known as situated motivation, where learners and environments affect each other. ​ Motivation is multifaceted outcome of past experiences, present conditions, and environmental contexts. ​ Some motivational factors are within a learner's control, while many are shaped by external circumstances. ​ The psychological study of motivation: -​ See how to identify why people behave and do the things they do. -​ Discover goals that prompt behaviour. ​ Motivation influences behaviour and learning by directing efforts toward specific goals, increasing effort, and helping learners persist in activities despite challenges. ​ It affects cognitive processes like attention and deep thinking and determines what is reinforcing or punishing. Motivation History: 18th Century: ​ Complete control over self to direct and inhibit behaviour ​ Rationale most important element ​ Religious/moral influence ​ Hedonistic – man is a pleasure-seeking pain – avoiding creature ​ Animal seen as acting only on instinct and completely alien to the homo-sapiens species. 19th Century: ​ DARWIN 1853: His Publication of Origin of Species and his Theory of Evolution upset the apple cart! ​ Crept into writing of Functionally minded Psychologists in the 1880s. ​ SULLY 1884: Desire that precedes an act and determines it to be called ‘its moving force, stimulus or motive.  ​ DEWEY 1886: A desire, when chosen, becomes a motive. Motives impelling us to actions. Instinct Theory (McDougall) ​ Inborn pattern of behaviour biologically determined. ​ People are born with pre-programmed behaviour, essential to survival (Pre-dispositions). ​ List of instincts: From 11 to 18 to 5789. Does not explain diversity of Human Behaviour Drive Theory (Woodworth) ​ Motivational tension or arousal that energises behaviour in order to fulfil a need. Drives produced to fulfil basic biological needs or remove unpleasantness. ​ Drive is an internal state of need and entails body to bring itself back to physiological homeostasis. Drive Reduction Theory (Hull) ​ When drive is aroused, one would behave as in the past if this particular behaviour served to reduce the drive and satisfy the need. ​ Notion of Habit strength Opponent process theory (Solomon) ​ Functioning predicated on maintaining a moderate position of motivational normality. ​ Any swing towards extremes on motivational dimension produces a completely opposite process to operate the system back to normal. ​ The Pendulum Affect ​ The Spring Affect Psycho-analytic Theory (Freud). Field Theory (Harlow and Zimmerman) ​ Principle: How do culture patterns affect rearing of children and subsequent behaviour patterns? ​ 1959 experiment: -​ Wire surrogate mother with food -​ Cloth surrogate mother without food ​ Results: -​ Monkeys always preferred cloth -​ Long-term effect: lacked affection, deficient in sexual responses ​ Conclusion: lack of correct behaviour emphasises environmental learning Motivation’s effects on learning. ​ Motivation is reflected in personal investment, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural engagement. ​ It increases time on tasks, which is crucial for learning and achievement. ​ Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic, with varying impacts on learning and performance. Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation: ​ Extrinsic Motivation: Driven by external factors, such as rewards (e.g., tax refunds) or avoiding punishments (e.g., fines). This can sometimes result in minimal effort or stop once reinforcement ceases. ​ Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by internal enjoyment or value of the task itself (e.g., reading about topics of personal interest). Intrinsic motivation generally leads to higher engagement, creativity, persistence, and achievement. ​ Motivation is not always purely intrinsic or extrinsic. Often, both types of motivation coexist. For example, students might be driven by the desire for good grades (extrinsic) and the internal satisfaction of mastering a topic (intrinsic). Advantages of Intrinsic Motivation: ​ Intrinsically motivated learners: -​ Pursue tasks independently. -​ Focus on tasks and engage deeply.  -​ Undertake challenging aspects and strive for genuine understanding. -​ Show creativity, persist through failure, and enjoy the process. -​ Seek additional learning opportunities and achieve at high levels. Basic Human Needs and Motivation: ​ Drive Reduction: Based on the idea that people act to maintain physiological balance (e.g., hunger, thirst). Behaviours are reinforced when they reduce drive (e.g., eating when hungry). ​ Incentives: The characteristics of goal objects influence motivation. Attractive incentives (e.g., more food at the end of a runway) encourage harder work. Arousal and Motivation: ​ Humans have a basic need for arousal (stimulation), and too little or too much arousal is unpleasant. An optimal level of arousal is desired, which can vary between individuals. ​ Sensation Seeking: Some people seek high levels of stimulation (e.g., risky activities), while others prefer quieter environments. ​ Arousal theory explains behaviours like students creating excitement in dull classroom settings or passing notes to fulfil their need for stimulation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Five Categories of Needs: founder of humanistic movement. Rejected both Schools of Psychology of the time: 1. Psychoanalysis: -​ too negative and pessimistic -​ struggle between instinct/conscience -​ irrational and destructive 2. Behaviourism: -​ looked at one as a robot -​ reward/punishment shaping Maslow proposed five types of needs, which form a hierarchical structure: 1.​ Physiological Needs: Basic physical needs such as food, water, exercise, and rest. 2.​ Safety Needs: The need for security, stability, and predictability in life. 3.​ Love and Belonging Needs: The need for affection, relationships, and social acceptance. 4.​ Esteem Needs: The need for self-esteem and respect from others, linked to achievement and recognition.  5.​ Self-Actualization: The need to fulfill one's potential, engage in growth-oriented activities, and pursue intrinsic learning and creativity. Deficiency vs. Growth Needs: ​ Deficiency Needs (physiological, safety, love and belonging, and esteem needs) are focused on fulfilling gaps or lacks in one's life, and once met, they no longer drive behaviour. ​ Growth Need (self-actualization) is focused on personal development, often intrinsic in nature and rarely fully satisfied. Hierarchical Nature: People must satisfy lower-level needs before higher-level needs become motivating. For example, physiological needs must be met before safety needs can be addressed, and so on. Criticism of Maslow's Hierarchy: ​ Lack of Empirical Support: Maslow's theory is based on informal observations rather than systematic research. ​ Too Simplistic: Human motives are more complex and diverse than a rigid hierarchical structure. ​ Self-Actualization's Rarity: Self-actualization is rare, and the hierarchical structure may not apply universally. Self-Worth and Competence: Covington (1992) Describes self-worth as PROTECTING ONE’ SENSE OF COMPTENENCE. 1.​ Achieving success 2.​ Avoiding failure by -​ Refusal -​ Interpreting it as unimportant -​ Set low expectations. -​ Refuse to accept failure ( not accepting prior belief) -​ Make excuses for low performance. -​ Self-handicap: 1.​ Robert White's Need for Competence: White proposed that humans have a fundamental need for competence, a belief that they can effectively handle their environment. This drive helps people develop skills and adapt to their surroundings. 2.​ Self-Worth Theory (Martin Covington):  ​ The need to protect one's self-worth is a high priority for many people, often leading to strategies like success-avoidance (e.g., procrastination, self-handicapping) to avoid failure. ​ Self-Handicapping: Behaviours like setting unattainably high goals, procrastination, reducing effort, or creating obstacles are ways individuals protect their self-worth when they anticipate failure. 3.​ Impact of Failure: Failure can be seen as a threat to self-worth, especially when people base their self-worth on their successes and failures. Avoiding failure, even at the cost of performance, may help maintain self-worth. 4.​ Developmental Stability of Self-Worth: As people grow older, their sense of competence and self-worth generally becomes more stable. However, when self-worth is contingent on immediate success (contingent self-worth), it can lead to emotional instability. Revisiting Self-Efficacy: 1.​ Competence vs. Self-Efficacy: ​ Competence refers to an overall sense of being effective and capable in life, while self-efficacy is task-specific and reflects one's confidence in successfully completing particular tasks. ​ Both concepts are related; high self-efficacy in specific tasks can enhance overall competence and self-worth, and vice versa. 2.​ Importance of Success and Feedback: Success and positive feedback are crucial in developing self-efficacy and enhancing intrinsic motivation. Achievements—whether in an activity or through external feedback (e.g., grades)—reinforce competence. 3.​ Factors Influencing Self-Efficacy: Encouraging messages, peer successes, and personal accomplishments play a role in boosting one's belief in their abilities. 4.​ Negative Impact of Incompetence: Feelings of incompetence or failure can reduce motivation and engagement, while success builds confidence and motivation. Autonomy ​ People have a need for autonomy, or a sense of control over their actions and life direction. This is linked to intrinsic motivation, where people are driven by their own desires, rather than external pressures. ​ When individuals feel they have autonomy, they are more likely to: -​ Experience pleasure in activities -​ Engage meaningfully and creatively in tasks -​ Take on challenges that foster growth  -​ Achieve high levels of success -​ Persist in education and avoid dropping out ​ Impact of Lack of Autonomy: When individuals feel they have little control over their lives, their motivation is typically extrinsic (external), and they may feel bored, depressed, or lack self-worth. ​ People have a stronger sense of autonomy when they can make real choices about their actions and outcomes. For example, students who have control over their activities show more engagement in schoolwork. ​ Cultural Differences: The importance of autonomy can vary across cultures. Some cultures, particularly within Asian communities, might prefer others to make decisions for them as they trust their judgment. ​ External pressures such as threats ("do this or else") or strict deadlines reduce autonomy, thereby reducing intrinsic motivation. ​ Statements that control behaviour (e.g., giving rules without reasoning) can diminish autonomy and motivation, even if the statement is not directly threatening. ​ While external rewards can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation, they don't have an adverse effect when: -​ They affirm competence -​ They are unexpected -​ They are not tied to specific behaviours ​ When people know or believe their actions will be evaluated, their autonomy is reduced, leading to lower intrinsic motivation. ​ Secondary Control: People adapt to situations they cannot control by changing how they view or react to those situations. This strategy helps maintain motivation and psychological well-being. ​ People also have a fundamental need for relatedness—the sense of being socially connected and valued by others, which is particularly important in classroom settings. -​ Students' need for relatedness can affect: -​ Preferences for working with peers vs. alone -​ Concerns about social image (e.g., looking smart, popular) -​ Selection of schedules or class activities that allow them to connect with friends Affect and Its Effects 1.​ Affect and Motivation: Emotions like pleasure, anxiety, and excitement can drive motivation. People are motivated by how they feel about achieving a goal or the emotional outcomes they expect from success or failure. 2.​ Self-Conscious Emotions: Emotions such as pride, guilt, and shame come from how people view their own actions, often based on cultural standards. 3.​ Boredom: Boredom happens when a task is too easy, too hard, or uninteresting, making it hard for students to stay focused and engaged. 4.​ Pleasant vs. Unpleasant Emotions: People generally prefer positive emotions (like excitement), and cultural differences affect the kind of emotional state people enjoy. 5.​ Cognitive Engagement: When people are in a good mood, they focus better, learn more, and remember information more easily. Negative emotions like anxiety and frustration can make learning harder. 6.​ Cognitive Dissonance: When new information conflicts with existing beliefs, it causes discomfort, which motivates people to resolve the conflict by changing their beliefs or ignoring the new information. 7.​ Affect and Cognition: Emotions make information more memorable. We tend to remember emotional content better than neutral material, and our mood can affect how we recall information. 8.​ Hot Cognition: Emotional feelings are linked to thinking, which helps us remember and pay attention to emotional content. 9.​ Anxiety: Anxiety can interfere with learning, making it harder to remember information and solve problems, but it can also push people to work harder or avoid situations that make them anxious. -​ What is anxiety? Anxiety is a feeling of nervousness or worry about uncertain situations. It’s different from fear because fear is related to a specific threat, while anxiety is more general and unfocused. -​ Two Parts of Anxiety: 1.​ Worry: The thoughts and concerns we have about not being able to handle a situation. 2.​ Emotionality: The physical and emotional responses, like tension, faster heartbeat, and restlessness. -​ Types of Anxiety: 1.​ State Anxiety: related to a specific situation, like an upcoming exam. 2.​ Trait Anxiety: Long-term anxiety that occurs regularly in certain situations, like general math anxiety. It is a stable reaction to an activity. -​ Anxiety affects performance - A little anxiety can help performance, especially in easy tasks. But too much anxiety can hurt performance, especially in difficult tasks. -​ Arousal Theory Yerkes-Dodson Law: Easy tasks are best with high arousal, but hard tasks need low or moderate arousal to perform best: o​ Level of Internal Energy  o​ We try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing and reducing as necessary o​ For Best Performance – optimum level of arousal o​ More arousal for simpler tasks, less arousal for more difficult tasks -​ Effects on cognitive functioning- Anxiety can make it hard to focus on tasks because it uses up working memory. When people worry, they have less mental energy for the task at hand, which makes it harder to think clearly, solve problems, or recall information. -​ Common Causes of Anxiety: People feel anxious about things like personal appearance, new situations, or the fear of being judged/social image and impression (sources of anxiety). Common sources include changing schools, encountering conflicting ideas, or when self-worth is threatened (like during evaluations). -​ Stereotype Threat: Anxiety related to stereotypes can also hurt performance. People from groups that are stereotyped as low achieving may perform worse on tests because they worry about confirming those stereotypes. When people don’t view their performance as a reflection of their worth, this effect is less strong. Creating a Motivating and Affect-Friendly Classroom Environment Types of Motivation ​ Intrinsic Motivation: Students learn because they enjoy it or find it interesting. It leads to better learning and results. ​ Extrinsic Motivation: Students learn to get rewards like good grades or praise. This works in the short term but isn’t as effective long-term. How to Encourage Intrinsic Motivation 1.​ Focus on Enjoyment and Understanding: Teach in a way that makes learning enjoyable, not just about getting good grades. 2.​ Show Enthusiasm: If teachers are excited about the subject, students are more likely to feel the same. 3.​ Make Learning Relevant: Connect lessons to things students care about or experience in real life. Building Confidence and Skills ​ Challenging Work: Students feel proud when they succeed at meaningful tasks. ​ Learning from Mistakes: Show students that mistakes are okay and help them improve. When Rewards Help ​ Starting Motivation: Rewards can help when students find tasks boring or difficult. ​ Shifting Over Time: Gradually encourage students to learn for personal satisfaction. Feedback and Support ​ Positive Feedback: Build students’ confidence by praising their efforts and skills. ​ Helpful Criticism: Show students how to improve rather than just pointing out mistakes. Learning (Mastery) versus performing goals ​ Learning – engage in activities to help them learn: Attention, process information, do assignment to learn healthy perspective about learning balancing success and failure ​ Performing – Pre-occupation of their image in front of their peers.. Impedes learning process Lecture 5. Jean Piaget Genetic Epistemology. Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology The Development of Knowledge Genetic Epistemology explains how from these reflexes will develop a human who can walk, eat, reason, predict, think … ultimately adapt to and somewhat control his environment. 4 factors affect: 1.​ Maturation - An internally programmed growth which has -​ Invariable sequence. -​ 3-role stages – namely consolidation. -​ Moves towards a cohesive structure whole. 2.​ Physical experience. 3.​ Social experience. 4.​ Equilibration process. Reflex: a simple, involuntary and unlearned response to a stimulus. Three basic reflexes: 1.​ Grasping reflex. 2.​ Rooting reflex 3.​ Sucking reflex.​ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. 1.​ Definition of Learning by Piaget - In its strict sense, learning is the acquisition of specific information from the environment. In a broader sense, it includes learning through experience and equilibration. Equilibration is the process by which new information is added to existing knowledge and changes how that knowledge is organized. ​ Learning in strict sense: -​ Exogenous acquisition. -​ Relatively permanent knowledge as result of direct interaction with environment. -​ Not spontaneous but provoked. -​ Is subordinate to development. What child can learn depends on developmental stage -​ Except for above point, learning not as ordered -​ Effective learning is acquired and retained skills, and knowledge. -​ Pure learning is acquired and retained skills and knowledge 2.​ Active Learning: -​ Piaget believed children are naturally curious and want to understand their world. -​ They learn by experimenting, observing, and interacting with their environment.  3.​ Children organize their learning into patterns or groups called schemas. Schemas start with simple action and later become more complex: -​ Describe both the mental and physical actions involved an understanding. -​ Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. -​ Piaget – schema is a category of knowledge and also involves the process to obtain that knowledge. This new information is used to modify, add or change previously existing schemas. 4.​ Children learn by physically interacting with objects (e.g., figuring out how tools work). These experiences help them understand things like gravity, weight, and cause-and-effect. 5.​ Social interactions teach children that others may see the world differently. Talking, sharing, and solving conflicts help them learn about fairness and logic. 6.​ Piagetian Principles of Learning: -​ Internal process of construction: children’s own activities determine their reactions to environment stimulation. -​ Subordinate to Development – competence is a precondition to learning. -​ Not only by observing objects, but also by re-organising – on a higher mental level what they learn from co-ordinating their activities. -​ Sparked by a feedback process – growth from knowledge is created by a feedback process that proceeds from questions, contradictions and consequent mental reorganization. -​ Social interaction- Questions, contradictions, and the consequent reorganisation of thought are often stimulated by social interaction. -​ Understanding lags behind action- Since awareness (or conscious realisation) is a process of reconstruction rather than a sudden