LBYBIO 3-LE1 Reviewer PDF

LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 TABLE 1. HEADING RELATED LINKS Header 1 Header 2 Header 3...

LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 TABLE 1. HEADING RELATED LINKS Header 1 Header 2 Header 3 Gizmo Deck Abcabcabc Subheader 1 ✩ Bullet 1 Labeled Images Abcabcabc ✩ Bullet 2 ✩ Bullet 3 OVERVIEW Subheader 2 Topic 1 Subtopic 1 Subheader 3 ○ Subtopic 1.1 ○ Subtopic 1.2 #433878 HEADING 1 ⋆｡°✩ #7e60bf #e1a1f0 1.0 HEADING 2 ⋆｡°✩ #ffe1ff FIGURE 1. HEADING 1.2 HEADING 3 ⋆｡°✩ [𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒] 1.2.3 HEADING 4, 5, etc Basic text Bolded text Italicized text Underlined text Highlighted text ★ Bullet 1 ★ Bullet 2 ★ Bullet 3 1. List 1 2. List 2 3. List 3 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. 1 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 1  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum. 2 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 2  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 1. Sagittal – A plane that passes through the body and splits it into left and right parts 1 – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF ○ Median plane – A sagittal plane that THE ANIMAL FORM ⋆｡°✩ divides into equal parts; found in the middle ○ Parasagittal plane – A sagittal plane 1.0 DESCRIPTIVE TERMS ⋆｡°✩ that splits into unequal parts 2. Frontal – A plane perpendicular to the sagittal To pinpoint the location of specific structures, you can plane. Divides a body into definitive ventral use the multiple descriptive terms below. and dorsal parts ○ It is called frontal because the plane Dorsal – The side facing the back splits you into a front and a back half Ventral – The side facing the belly 3. Transverse – A plane perpendicular to both Lateral – The left and right sides. prior planes. Generally, it follows a different Anterior / Cephalic / Cranial – The side / end nearest direction than the frontal and sagittal plane. to the head ○ In quadruped animals, the transverse Posterior / Caudal – The side / end nearest to the tail plane cuts vertically, whereas it cuts Median – Middle horizontally in bipeds. Other terms These planes, along with the sides in the previous Central – The area nearest, or at the middle section, allow us to form three distinct axes: Peripheral – Nearest to the surface Proximal – Nearest to the central mass of a body 1. Longitudinal / Anteroposterior – The Distal – Farthest from the central mass of a body shortest axis that spans from the head to the Superficial – On or nearest to the surface tail Deep – Far below the surface 2. Sagittal / Dorsoventral – The shortest axis Superior – Above that spans from the back to the belly Inferior – Below 3. Transverse / Mediolateral – The shortest axis that runs from one end of the transverse end ★ The bipedal nature of humans and other to the other, opposite end species may confuse the aforementioned descriptive terms. Hence, some terms are switched around for clarity. ○ Ventral → Anterior (as in, in front) ○ Dorsal → Posterior (as in behind) ○ Anterior → Superior (as in going to the head; upwards) ○ Posterior → Inferior (as in going to the feet) ★ Adding –d in place of the last letter (i.e., caudad) would indicate that a structure is going in the direction of the particular descriptive term. ○ Ex. Caudad → In the direction of the tail 2.0 PLANES & AXES ⋆｡°✩ 3 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 3  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Fusion Enlargement Reduction Loss of certain parts Modification of certain parts 5.0 CEPHALIZATION ⋆｡°✩ Cephalization – The localization/concentration of sense organs into the anterior end of an animal body → the head The head and its contents control the rest of the body, explaining its dominance and need to concentrate on the anterior end of the 3.0 SYMMETRY ⋆｡°✩ body. Four types of symmetry are present throughout the 6.0 HOMOLOGY & ANALOGY ⋆｡°✩ animal kingdom: 1. Spherical 2. Radial Homologous structures – Structures in different 3. Biradial animals that can be traced to a singular origin 4. Bilateral – A median sagittal plane serves as Origin is found within a common shared the plane of symmetry. ancestor Ex. wings of birds and limbs of mammals Unpaired – Cut in half by bilateral symmetry Paired – Symmetrical structures present when cutting Analogous structures – Structures in different bilaterally; equidistant from the median sagittal plane animals with a shared function but come from various origins The result of an animal adapting to its current 4.0 METAMERISM ⋆｡°✩ environmental situation Convergence – Animals of different origins end up Metamerism – The repetition of specific structures with analogous structures over regular intervals Divergence – Homologous structures on different Can be: animals that end up having different functions due to Homonomous – Repeated segments are alike the environment ○ Rarely happens ○ Annelids are the animals closest to achieving homonomous metamerism 2 – PHYLUM CHORDATA ⋆｡°✩ ○ Can exist independently of one another Heteronomous – Repeated segments CHARACTERISTICS OF 1.0 become unlike one another CHORDATES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Each segment has its specialized function ○ Occurs through various processes: All animals in the phylum possess these three Reduction of segments characteristics: 4 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 4  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Phylum Chordata 1. Gill slits – Perforations within the pharynx Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates) 2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord – A structure that Class Ascidiacea serves as / eventually becomes the central Genera: nervous system in animals Molgula (Sea squirts/grapes) 3. Notochord – A rod of cells that runs Pandocia longitudinally from anterior to posterior. Class Larvacea Class Thaliacea CHARACTERISTICS OF 2.0 Subphylum Cephalochordata VERTEBRATES ⋆｡°✩ Genera: Branchiostoma Branchiostoma lanceolatum Features include, but are not limited to: (Amphioxus/Lancelet) Bilateral symmetry Internal, heteronomous metamerism observed Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebrates) in Superclass Agnathostomata ○ Muscles Class Myxini (Hagfish) ○ Vertebral column Class Petromyzontida/Cephalaspidomorphi ○ Nerves Order Petromyzontiformes Paired, jointed, locomotor appendages Genus Petromyzon Skin detachable from rest of body Petromyzon marinus Presence of protective structures on skin (Lamprey) Internal skeleton made of cartilage and / or bone Superclass Gnathostomata Three pairs of sense organs: Eyes, ears, nose Class Chondrichthyes Pharynx connected to the respiratory system Subclass Elasmobranchii Order Squaliformes Family Squalidae Genus Squalus CHORDATE CLASSIFICATION ⋆｡ 3.0 Squalus suckleyi, °✩ Squalus acanthias (Dogfish) Note that this follows Hyman’s Classification. If you Order Rajiformes want the Kent and Carr version, check out the Genera compana reviewer. Raja (Skate) Torpedo (Electric skate) Phylum Hemichordata Dasyatis (Stingray) Class: Enteropneusta Genera: Subclass Holocephalii Saccoglossus → Larger proboscis Order Chimaeriformes Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Chimaeras/ratfish) Balanoglossus → Smaller proboscis Class Actinopterygii Subclass Neopterygii Order Anguilliformes (Eel) Order Lepisosteiformes Family Lepisosteidae Genus Lepisosteus (Gar pike) 5 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 5  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Order Gonorynchiformes Alligator (Crocodile) Family Chanidae Genus Chanos Chanos chanos Class Aves (Bangus/Milkfish) Subclass Neornithes Order Galliformes Genus Gallus Class Amphibia Gallus domesticus (Rooster) Subclass Lissamphibia Order Urodela Class Mammalia Genus Necturus Subclass Eutheria Necturus maculosus Order Carnivora (Mudpuppy) Suborder Fissipedia Order Anura Genera Felis Genera Felis catus (Cat) Bufo Bufo marinus (Cane Order Pholidota (Pangolins) toad) Order Artiodactyla (Deer) Rana Rana vittigera (Philippine frog) (Other orders) Order Chiroptera (Bats) Order Lagomorpha (Rabbits) Class Reptilia Order Rodentia (Rats) Subclass Diapsida Order Proboscidea (Elephants) Order Testudines Order Primates (Monke) Genera Chrysemys Order Pholidota (Pangolin) Cyclemys Order Artiodactyla (Mouse deer) Chelonia Order Carnivora Testudo (Turtles) Class Subclass Superorder Lepidosauria Order Order Squamata Suborder Suborder Lacertilia Family Genera Genus Varanus (Monitor lizard) Species (Common name) Gekko (Gecko) Mabuya (Skink) Based on the type of skeleton Suborder Serpentes (Snake) 3.1 Other Groups ⋆｡°✩ Superorder Archosauria Order Crocodilia Icthyopsida – Amphibians + Fishes Genera Sauropsida – Reptiles and Birds Crocodylus Anamniota / Anaminia – Naked embryos; Fish and Crocodylus porosus amphibians (Crocodile) Amniota – Emberyos covered by an amnion; Reptiles, 6 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 6  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 birds, and mammals ○ Where mouth can be found Genital ridges ○ Contains the gonads 3 – EXTERNAL FEATURES OF THE Gill pores LOWER TYPES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Found between anterior dorsal genital ridges ○ NOT Gill slits, as they do not directly 1.0 HEMICHORDATES ⋆｡°✩ come from the pharynx Chambers that lead to the Taxonomy true, u-shaped gill slits Phylum: Chordata* Is also actually smaller than Subphylum: Hemichordata the true gill slits Class: Enteropneusta However, the slits may open Common name: Acorn Worms directly into the external Genus: Saccoglossus / environment in some species Balanoglossus Trunk – Divided into three parts: ○ Branchiogenital/thoracic Laboratory species: Balanoglossus sp. ○ Hepatic ○ Abdominal Note that Saccoglossus has a longer proboscis, whereas Balanoglossus has a stouter one 1.2 Internal Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ 1.1 External Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Wormlike 5-6 in lengthwise Divisions: Notable Structures ○ Proboscis Buccal diverticulum – The supposed ○ Collar counterpart of the notochord within ○ Trunk saccoglossids Branchiogenital/Thoracic ○ Molecular evidence says otherwise Hepatic Proboscis muscles Abdominal ○ Circular muscle ○ Longitudinal muscle Glomerulus Notable Structures ○ Primitive kidney Proboscis ○ Slender, conical ○ Used for borrowing 2.0 UROCHORDATES ⋆｡°✩ Collar 7 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 7  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Taxonomy: Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Urochordata Class: Ascidiacea Common name: Tunicates, Sea squirts Laboratory species: 1. Molgula (sea grapes) 2. Pandocia 2.1 External Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Oval & Sac-like One end is attached to the substrate, whereas 2.2 Internal Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ the other is free The dorsal area is considered to be the Mantle/Soft body wall smaller region between the two siphons, ○ Encloses the viscera whereas the ventral side consists of ○ Secretes the tunic everything else ○ Has muscular stripes that control either of the siphons Notable structures Siphons Digestive Tract ○ Oral/Incurrent/Branchial siphon – Pharynx Opening where water enters into the ○ Thin-walled bag tunicate ○ Heavily perforated with ○ Atrial/Excurrent siphon – Opening gill/visceral/pharyngeal slits that where water exits out of the tunicate open up into the atrium ○ Can be opened or closed due to ○ Where the incurrent siphon opens up muscles on the body wall to Tunic/Test Atrium ○ Thick, tough, gelatinous covering ○ Cavity outside of the pharynx ○ Secreted by the ectoderm ○ Opens up to the atrial siphon ○ May be easily transparent Esophagus ○ Narrowed structure ○ Found at the lower end of the pharynx Stomach ○ Curved ○ Lies parallel to the long axis of the pharynx ○ Connected with the: ( ← ) esophagus ( → ) intestine ○ May have brown digestive glands Intestine ○ Tubular structure 8 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 8  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Loops around to lie parallel to the stomach Body Description ○ Connected with the: Slender, fish-like ( ← ) Stomach Tapered ends ( → ) anus Compressed laterally Anus Flattened ventrally ○ Within the atrial cavity Anterior End Reproductive Tract Resembles a poorly developed head Gonads (Ovary and testis) Oral hood – An expandable membrane found ○ Hermaphroditic (has both) in the anterior end of the head ○ Paired or singular mass Stomodaeum / vestibule – Cavity defined by ○ Either found within the intestinal loop the oral hood (singular) or attached to the mantle Tentacles / cirri – Found on the external (paired) borders of the oral hood Oviduct & Vas deferens ○ Connected with the: Ventral surface ( ← ) Ovary (if oviduct) Atriopore – A posterior opening ( ← ) Testis (if vas deferens) Anus ( → ) Atrial cavity near the excurrent siphon Appendages Metapleural folds / lateral fins – Nervous System Membranous folds from the posterior end of Ganglion the oral hood ○ Central nervous system counterpart ○ Meets behind the atriopore ○ May have nerves that innervate the Dorsal fin siphons Caudal fin Muscles, Skin & Bone Transparent epidermis Myotomes/Myomeres – Muscle counterpart ○ ~60 units Myocomma/Myosepta – Separates myotome units Transverse/Ventral muscles – Not as readily visible muscle components of the ventral side Other Structures Gonads – White, squared, metameric masses CEPHALOCHORDATES Atrium – A clear chamber surrounding the 3.0 (AMPHIOXUS) ⋆｡°✩ digestive tract that opens up into the atriopore Taxonomy Genus: Amphioxus / Branchiostoma Laboratory species: Branchiostoma lanceolatum 3.1 External Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ 9 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 9  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Thicker dorsally and thins out ventrally ○ Transverse muscles are found between the metapleural folds, above the epidermis Neural tube ○ Semi-oval or trapezoidal ○ Between dorsal myotomes ○ Dorsal to the notochord, ventral to the dorsal ridge ○ Neurocoel – Central canal in the 3.2 Internal Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ middle of the neural tube ○ Has dark spots that are sensitive to light (optic cups) Digestive Tract Only those on the anterior end Velum – A membrane found on the posterior are insensitive end of the vestibule Notochord Mouth – A perforation of the velum ○ Large mass ventral to the neural tube Wheel organ – A ciliated epithelial structure Pharynx that directs food into the mouth ○ Elongated or heart-shaped Hatschek’s groove – Dorsal groove ○ Ventral to notochord ○ Dorsally located from the wheel organ ○ Multiple pharyngeal slits separated Pharynx – A large, perforated cavity that is by pharyngeal bars surrounded by the atrium Branchial rod – Supports the ○ Gill slits/Pharyngeal clefts – pharyngeal bars externally Perforations of the pharynx ○ Has grooves on the dorsal and ventral Intestines – Tubular structures that direct side that secrete mucus for digestion water from inside the pharynx into the anus Epibranchial groove – Dorsal ○ Narrow in the regions closer to the groove pharynx but eventually widens up. Hypobranchial groove – Ventral groove Skeletal Structures Endostyle Fin rays ○ Found at the ventralmost portion of Notochord the hypobranchial groove Liver Others ○ Hollow, Oval structure Neural tube – Has small, black pigmented ○ Found right of the pharynx spots that function as photoreceptors ○ It is not visible in the image below Gonads ○ Dark masses ventrolateral to the 3.3 Transverse Cross-Section ⋆｡°✩ pharynx ○ Paired Epidermis ○ Projects into the atrium ○ Made of simple columnar epithelium ○ Cross-section varies between Dorsal ridge/Dorsal median projection sexes ○ Contains the fin rays M → Appears as Metapleural folds homogenous blobs ○ Many bumps can be observed in F → Appears fragmented between Myotomes/Myomeres & Transverse muscles 10 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 10  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Body Description Divisions: ○ Head ○ Trunk ○ Tail Tail is flattened Skin is soft, slimy, and naked Fins Anterior dorsal fin Posterior dorsal fin Caudal fin ○ Continuous with the posterior dorsal fin No ventral fins Supported by fin rays Anterior / Mouth Side Buccal funnel ○ Large bowl-shaped depression ○ Located ventrally ○ Leads to the: Mouth ( → ) ○ Lined with Papillae and horny teeth Tongue ○ Situated at the bottom of the buccal funnel ○ Covered in teeth Mouth ○ Located dorsally to the tongue 4.0 CYCLOSTOMES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Leads to the: Digestive tract Taxonomy Dorsal Side Subphylum: Craniata Nasohypophyseal opening/nasal Superclass: Agnatha aperture/nostril Class: Cephalaspidomorphi ○ A singular opening instead of a pair of Order: Petromyzontiformes openings Common name: Lampreys Eyes ○ Olfactory (?) organ Laboratory species: Petromyzon marinus ○ Lacks eyelids ○ Located laterally on the head Gill slits (External) 4.1 External Anatomy ⋆｡°✩ ○ Seven oval openings ○ Located posteriorly from the eyes Other Notable Structures Myotomes ○ Noticeable through the skin Anal opening pit 11 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 11  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Located at the junction where the ○ Continuous with both the external and trunk and the tail meet internal gill slits ○ Receives the: Digestive tract Gill lamellae Urogenital papilla & urogenital aperture ○ Found on the walls of the gill pouches ○ Receives the: Kidneys, gonads ○ Papilla contents are discharged Nervous System through the aperture Neural canal ○ Located dorsal to the notochord 4.2 Sagittal section of Anterior ⋆｡°✩ ○ Contains Spinal cord – Slender cord within the neural canal Brain – Enlarged lobed structure situated dorsal to the anterior notochord Olfactory Apparatus Olfactory sac ○ Located anterior to the tip of the brain ○ Has folds that bear a mucous membrane Digestive Tract Pituitary pouch Muscular tongue extensions ○ Located ventral to the anterior end of ○ Allow for the tongue to rasp around the notochord prey ○ The counterpart of the anterior lobe of Buccal cavity the pituitary body in other animals ○ The continuous passageway of the buccal funnel past the mouth Other Notable Structures ○ Slopes ventrally and branch into two Notochord endpoints: the esophagus and the ○ Broad, brown rod pharynx ○ Located dorsally from the esophagus Velum ○ Chief axial skeleton ○ A membranous fold found at the Pericardial cavity boundary between the buccal cavity ○ Conical cavity into the pharynx ○ Located posterior to the 7th gill pouch Esophagus ○ Contains the heart ○ Smaller passageway from the buccal cavity 4 – EXTERNAL ANATOMY & ADAPTIVE ○ Located dorsal to the pharynx RADIATION IN GNATHOSTOMES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Leads to: the rest of the digestive tract Pharynx ○ Perforated by 7 oval openings CHONDRICHTHYES – DOGFISH ⋆｡ ○ Part of the digestive tract in embryos 1.0 °✩ but ends nowhere in adults Respiratory System Taxonomy Gill slits (Internal) Subphylum: Craniata ○ The oval openings found in the Superclass: Gnathostomata pharynx Class: Condrichthyes Gill pouches Subclass: Elasmobranchii 12 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 12  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Order: Squaliformes ○ Crescentic Family: Squalidae ○ Bounded by Upper and Lower Jaws Genus: Squalus ○ Has diagonal rows of teeth Common name: Dogfish, Nostrils Dogfish shark ○ Paired openings ○ Located ventrally from the rostrum Laboratory species: Squalus suckleyi, Squalus ○ A flap of skin divides the passageway acanthias into two. One of the passageways leads into the olfactory sac 1.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ Eyes ○ Oval shaped ○ Situated laterally ○ Immovable upper and lower eyelids ○ It is covered by a Nictitating Membrane, which functions as a “third eyelid.” Ears ○ Located internally, as a prominence behind the eyes ○ Endolymphatic ducts – Connects the Body Description ears to the external environment Highly adapted for free-swimming Opens to a pair of pores Fusiform with pointed ends situated posterior to the eyes Divisions: ○ Head ○ Trunk 1.3 Gill Slits ⋆｡°✩ ○ Tail The divisions are not distinctly separated from Spiracle – Gill slit that serves as an entrance one another for water into the respiratory system The other five slits (2nd to 6th) are used as an Skin exit for water Skin is covered in scales Continuous with the pharynx cavity Lateral line ○ A whitish line that extends longitudinally across the sides of the 1.4 Fins ⋆｡°✩ body ○ Detects vibrations in the water Unpaired/medial fins – Individual fins located on the median lines of an animal 1.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ ○ Anterior dorsal fin ○ Posterior dorsal fin Both dorsal fins have a spine Head Description anterior to the fin itself Triangular ○ Ventral fin Flattened Located on the ventral side of Rostrum – Pointed extremity found on the the tail anterior tip of the dogfish Found in smooth dogfish only ○ Tail/caudal fin Notable Structures Heterocercal Mouth 13 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 13  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Paired/lateral fins – Two sets of fins that can be found equidistant from the median lines of an animal ○ Pectoral fins Located posterior to the gill slits ○ Pelvic fins Situated at the junction of the trunk and tail Clasper ○ A posteriorly directed, stout process found in male dogfishes ○ Haha shark penis Fin rays ○ Supports fins ○ Embedded in the skin 2.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ 1.5 Anus ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Cloaca Greatly flattened anterior ○ Chamber that receives contents Dorsoventrally shortened coming from BOTH the digestive and Transversally elongated urogenital systems Divisions: ○ Head ○ Trunk 2.0 CHONDRICHTHYES – SKATE ⋆｡°✩ ○ Slender tail Taxonomy Skin Subphylum: Craniata Tough skin with scales Class: Chondrichthyes Scales are the same type as those found in Subclass: Elasmobranchii dogfishes Order: Rajiformes ○ Larger in size but less in number Genera: Raja, Torpedo, Dasyatis ○ Consists of: Common names: Skates, Basal plate Electric/Torpedo rays, Stingray Spine (respectively) The arrangement of scales varies with the sex of the skate Laboratory species: Raja, Torpedo, Dasyatis ○ F → Present on lateral trunk expansions and abundant on the dorsal surface of the trunk and tail ○ M → Lateral expansions have no scales but are more prominent on the head in exchange. 2.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ Dorsoventrally flattened 14 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 14  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Continuous with the pectoral fins CHONDRICHTHYES – CHIMAERA Terminates at a rostrum 3.0 Eyes ⋆｡°✩ ○ Located dorsally ○ Lacks eyelids Taxonomy Spiracle Subphylum: Vertebrata ○ Has an anterior valve marked by Superclass: Gnathostomata ridges Class: Chondrichthyres ○ Served as a rudimentary gill of sorts Subclass: Holocephalii ○ Also still the first pharyngeal slit Order: Chimaeriformes Mouth & Jaws Common name: Chimaeras/Ratfish ○ Larger in males than in females Nostrils ○ Paired apertures with a fringed ear-like flap ○ Leads to another flap near to the internal angle of the mouth, known as the nasofrontal process Oronasal groove ○ A passageway that leads the nasal cavity into the mouth Gill slits ○ On the ventral surface due to the fusion of the lateral fins with the head 3.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ 2.3 Fins ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Unpaired fins Elongated ○ Dorsal caudal fins Cone-shaped A pair of small fins located at Whip-like tail (similar to stingrays) the tip of the tail dorsally Divisions: ○ Pectoral fins ○ Head Significantly enlarged ○ Trunk Continuous even up to the ○ tail head regions of the skate ○ Pelvic fins Skin Located posterior to the Smooth skin pectoral fins May be continuous with the pectoral fins in some species 3.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ Paired fins ○ Heavily reduced in this order Small gaping mouth Claspers ○ Grinding teeth only ○ It has the same function as in Operculum dogfishes ○ Folds cover the gills ○ Deeply grooved along the Lateral line system posterolateral margins of the skate 15 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 15  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Trunk 3.3 Fins ⋆｡°✩ ○ Tail Skin Unpaired fins The trunk and tail have overlapping, diagonal ○ Enlarged pectoral fin cycloid scales ○ Pelvic fin The head, meanwhile, bears a soft epidermis ○ Two dorsal fins with smaller scales (occasionally) First fin – erectile ○ Thin, flat bones (enlarged scales) can Second fin – Non-erectile be found beneath Claspers Lateral line ○ Located between fins ○ Present throughout the sides of the body 3.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ 4.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ OSTEICHTHYES – TELEOSTS ⋆｡ 4.0 Mouth & Jaws °✩ ○ Terminally positioned ○ Supposedly more primitive than the Taxonomy mouths of elasmobranchs Subphylum: Craniata Nostrils Superclass: Gnathostomata ○ Paired Class: Actinopterygii ○ Anterodorsally located by the end of Subclass: Neopterygii the head Order: Gonorynchiformes ○ Leads to: Individual olfactory sacs Genus: Chanos Eyes Scientific name: Chanos chanos ○ Lacks eyelids Common name: Milkfish, Bangus Externally invisible ears Laboratory Species: Chanos chanos The Gills Operculum/Gill Flap ○ Covers the posterolateral regions of the head ○ Supported by opercular bones, similar to the enlarged scales mentioned earlier ○ Covers the gill opening Branchiostegal membrane & rays ○ Attached to the ventral surface of the operculum ○ Rays support the membrane Gill arches 4.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ ○ Structures wherein multiple gill filaments are attached to ○ Gaps allow for continuous movement Body Description from the external environment to the Fusiform-shaped pharyngeal cavity Compressed laterally Gills Divisions: ○ Double row of thin filaments ○ Head 16 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 16  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Gill rakers ○ Toothlike processes on the inner margin of a gill arch 4.3 Fins ⋆｡°✩ Unpaired fins ○ Dorsal fin ○ Ventral/Anal fin ○ Caudal fin Homocercal Paired fins ○ Pectoral fins Taxonomy Situated immediately Subphylum: Craniata posterior to the operculum Superclass: Osteichthyes ○ Pelvic fins Class: Actinopterygii Fin rays Genus: Lepisosteus ○ Only the anterior dorsal fin is not Common name: Gar pike supported by fin rays. Instead, these are supported by sharp, rigid spines Laboratory species: Lepisosteus Lepidotrichia ○ Modified scales Notable Features ○ Structural support for soft rays in Ganoid scales bony fishes ○ Rhomboid scales set in diagonal rows ○ Bone covered in an enamel (ganoine) 4.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ ○ Passes onto the head as large plates Elongated jaws ○ Snout present at tip with nostrils Anus ○ Bears numerous sharp teeth ○ Anterior to the ventral fins Operculum present Urogenital papilla ○ However, the spiracle is absent ○ Small elevation Stout, jointed fin rays ○ Separates exit passageways of the Heterocercal, approaching homocercal tail digestive and the urogenital systems 5.2 Acipenser – Sturgeons ⋆｡°✩ 5.0 LOWER FISHES ⋆｡°✩ The following fishes are considered to be more 5.3 Polyodon – Spoonbills ⋆｡°✩ primitive/basal groups than the teleosts: 5.1 Lepidosteus – Gar pikes ⋆｡°✩ 5.4 Amia – Bowfins ⋆｡°✩ [DISCLAIMER: I will only write for gar pikes, as it is 6.0 AMPHIBIANS ⋆｡°✩ part of the study guide. Anything else will be done if I still have time] Taxonomy Subphylum: Craniata 17 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 17  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Class: Amphibia 6.3 Appendages ⋆｡°✩ Order: Urodela Genus: Necturus Common names: Common Forelimbs Mudpuppy/salamander ○ Upper arm ○ Forearm Laboratory species: Necturus maculosus ○ Wrist ○ Hand 6.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ Hindlimbs ○ Thigh ○ Shank Body Description ○ Ankle Divisions: ○ Foot ○ Head Four digits per hand/foot ○ Trunk Flattened tail ○ Tail ○ It is bordered by a tail fin that lacks fin The neck is not present rays ○ Diphycercal (truly symmetrical) Skin Naked 6.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ Very slimy Lacks keratinized protective structures Gular fold Cloaca ○ Prominent fold ○ Same with elasmobranchs ○ Located ventrally, anterior to the ○ Located ventrally at the trunk-tail forelimbs junction 6.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ 7.0 REPTILES – LIZARDS ⋆｡°✩ Broad and flat Taxonomy Terminal mouth with lips Subphylum: Craniata Nostrils/External nares Class: Reptilia ○ Located posterior to the margin of the Order: Squamata upper lip Genera: ○ Opens into the mouth cavity through 1. Varanus the internal nares 2. Gekko Lidless eyes 3. Mabuya Internal ears Common names: External gills 1. Asian Water Monitor Lizard ○ Originates from the posterior margins 2. Tokay gecko of the head 3. Skink ○ Consists of independently developing fringe filaments from a dorsal process Laboratory species: Varanus salvator, Gekko gecko, ○ Where water passes through Mabuya Gill slits ○ Opens into the pharynx 7.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ 18 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 18  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 7.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Fusiform shape Divisions: Cloacal aperture ○ Head ○ Located on the ventral side of the ○ Neck trunk, behind the bases of the ○ Trunk hindlimbs ○ Long tail ○ Transverse slit Skin 8.0 REPTILES – SNAKES ⋆｡°✩ Horny scales ○ Thickenings of the epidermis ○ NOT homologous with scales 8.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ Head shields ○ Larger scales located on the head Gular fold may also be present 8.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ 7.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ 8.3 Appendages ⋆｡°✩ Nostrils/external nares ○ Opens into the mouth cavity through the internal nares 8.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ ○ Located on the anterior tip of the head Eyes ○ Movable upper and lower eyelids 9.0 REPTILES – TURTLES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Nictitating/third eyelid present Pineal eye ○ A “third eye” which is part of the brain Taxonomy ○ Photosensitive and associated with Subphylum: Craniata the pineal gland Class: Reptilia Tympanic membrane & Tympanic cavity Order: Testudines ○ In between the eye and the base of Genera: Chrysemys, Cyclemys, the forelimb Chelonia, Testudo ○ Depression/cavity may be regarded as Common name: Turtles the start of an external ear 9.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ 7.3 Appendages ⋆｡°✩ Body Description Forelimbs Divisions Hindlimbs ○ Head Femoral pores ○ Neck ○ Pores located on some appendages ○ Trunk that release pheromones for marking ○ Tail territory or attracting mates Long and flexible neck Five digits per limb Elongated transversally Limbs terminate into horny claws Shortened anteroposteriorly and dorsoventrally 19 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 19  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Skin Parts that are generally bound to be exposed Taxonomy (i.e., legs) are covered with small horny scales Subphylum: Vertebrata or thickenings Superclass: Gnathostomata Large shell covering the trunk Class: Reptilia ○ The outer surface is plated with large, Subclass: Diapsida horny scales Superorder: Archosauria Order: Crocodilia 9.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ Genera: Crocodylus porosus, Alligator Common name: Saltwater The anterior tip is pointed, and external nares crocodile, Alligator are closer together ○ Allows turtles to breathe air while in 10.1 Crocodiles vs Alligators ⋆｡°✩ water Beaks Eyes ○ Has three eyelids, including the nictitating membrane ○ The latter is located in the posterior corner of the eye 9.3 Trunk ⋆｡°✩ Shell encasing the trunk ○ Carapace The dorsal portion of the shell ○ Plastron The ventral portion of the shell ○ Lateral bridges Parts of a shell connecting the plastron and carapace Crocodiles together ○ Slender and triangular snout Shell made of both bony and horny plates ○ 4th tooth of lower jaw is seen when Two pairs of stour limbs mouth is closed ○ Five digits per limb Alligators ○ All bear claws except the fifth digits of ○ Broad and round snout the hind limbs ○ 4th tooth of lower jaw is hidden when mouth is closed 9.4 Openings ⋆｡°✩ 6 – COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE Anus SKIN & THE ENDOSKELETON ⋆｡°✩ ○ Located at the base of the ventral side REPTILES – CROCODILIANS ⋆｡ 11.0 AVES ⋆｡°✩ 10.0 °✩ Taxonomy Subphylum: Craniata 20 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 20  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Class: Aves Eyes Genus: Gallus ○ Upper and lower lids, with nictitating Common name: Gallus Domesticus membrane present Ear Laboratory species: Chicken ○Located below the eyes ○Only visible in plucked specimens ○Middle ear has sunk to the point that 11.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ the tympanic membrane is invisible ○ External ear present Body Description External auditory meatus Divisions: ○ Deep and narrow passageway ○ Head Well developed 11.3 Trunk ⋆｡°✩ ○ Neck Long and flexible ○ Trunk Wing Shorter and plumper than in ○ Homologous to the forelimbs of other reptiles invertebrates ○ Tail (uropygium) ○ Upper arm is short and directed Reduced to a stump posteriorly Skin ○ Forearm is not directed forward Covered in feathers ○ Wrist and hand are fused together ○ Contour feathers – Forms the overall ○ 3rd digit is the terminal point of the shape of a bird; Two types: wing Quills – Large and stout ○ 4th digit is not visible Coverts – Covers the bases Wing feathers of the wings, tail, and general ○ Remiges – Great quills found in wings surface ○ Primaries – Hand feathers ○ Hair feathers/Filoplumes – Hairlike ○ Secondaries – Forearm feathers processes ○ Humerals – Upper arm feathers Feather follicles Hindlimb ○ Where feathers grow from and are set ○ Has both feathers and scales in ○ Four digits; all terminate into claws ○ Raises the animnal above the ground 11.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ 11.4 Tail⋆｡°✩ Elongated beak ○ Located terminally on the anterior end Rectrices of the head ○ Large quills ○ Has upper and lower jaws covered ○ Half circle of feathers located at the with a horny sheath tail ○ Lacks teeth (modern birds) Uropygial gland Cere ○ Oil gland for preening ○ Cushion like structure on the base of ○ Located anterodorsal to the base of the upper beak the tail External nares ○ Located ventrally to the anterior 12.0 MAMMALS ⋆｡°✩ margins of the ceres (if present) 21 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 21  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Also has an external auditory Taxonomy (Under Class Mammalia) meatus Class: Mammalia Nose Subclass: Eutheria ○ Nasal cavity Order Carnivora Mouth Order Pholidota External nares Order Chiroptera (Bats) ○ Directs air into the nose Order Lagomorpha (Rabbits) Order Rodentia (Rats) 12.3 Trunk ⋆｡°✩suborder Order Proboscidea (Elephants) Order Primates Divisions ○ Thorax Taxonomy ○ Abdomen Subphylum: Craniata Teats/nipples Clade: Amniota ○ Located on the ventral side Class: Mammalia ○ 4-5 pairs Subclass: Eutheria Forelimbs Order: Carnivora Hindlimbs Suborder: Fissipedia Both limbs terminate into clawed digits Genus: Felis ○ 5 in front Common name: Cat ○ 4 at back ○ Retractable claws Laboratory species: Felis catus 12.1 Body & Skin ⋆｡°✩ 12.4 Perineal Region⋆｡°✩ Body Description Perineum Divisions: ○ Anal and urogenital opening ○ Head ○ No cloaca ○ Neck Vulva ○ Trunk ○ F only ○ Tail ○ Has labial lips (labia majora) Penis Skin ○ M only Covered in fur ○ Scrota sac Whiskers/Vibrissae ○ Prepuce/foreskin ○ Modified hairs on the face/nostrils of 6 – COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE an animal SKIN & THE ENDOSKELETON ⋆｡°✩ ○ Tactile sensory organ 12.2 The Head ⋆｡°✩ 1.0 THE SKELETON ⋆｡°✩ Enlarged Skeleton – Refers to all hardened structures of an Eyes & Eyelids animal Ears ○ Has an external ear/pinna 22 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 22  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Consists of hardened cells and/or their Pigment cells intercellular products in vertebrates (compared ○ Irregular, branching, and colored cells to the lifeless skeletons of invertebrates ○ Forms a thin layer beneath the Two types: epidermis 1. Exoskeleton Cutaneous glands ○ Derived from skin ○ Formed from the infolding of the ○ Forms a protective covering germinativum over the soft body ○ Opens to the surface through a neck 2. Endoskeleton passageway ○ Derived from the inner wall of the mesoderm ○ Supportive framework and attachment for muscles 3.0 THE EXOSKELETON ⋆｡°✩ Derived from the skin 2.0 THE SKIN ⋆｡°✩ ○ From hardening processes in either the epidermis or the dermis Skin/Integument – The outermost layers of the body Two types wall, which are separable from the other layers ○ Epidermal → Stratum germinativum generates cells, which then compress Layers of the Skin: and harden together to make a Epidermis singular hard, horny structure ○ Stratum corneum ○ Dermal → Produced by mesenchyme ○ Stratum lucidum cells from the dermatome ○ Stratum granulosum ○ Both are homologous across species ○ Stratum spinosum that share either skeletons ○ Stratum germinativum Dermis/Corium ○ Made of connective tissue 4.0 EXOSKELETON OF FISHES ⋆｡°✩ ○ Comes from the mesenchyme of the dermatome → epimere → mesoderm 4.1 Types of Scales ⋆｡°✩ 3.1 Frog’s Skin ⋆｡°✩ Placoid Made of dentine and enamel Epidermis Has a basal plate and a median, projecting Stratum corneum spine ○ The shape of cells transitions from Pulp cavity flattened (squamous) to circular to ○ A hollow cavity inside the scale columnar Animals that have it: (Elasmobranchii) Stratum germinativum ○ Skates ○ Where columnar-shaped cells within ○ Shark the epidermis are present ○ No sharp boundary between the corneum and the germinativum ○ Active and constantly proliferating Dermis Arranged in a loose network of wavy fibers 23 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 23  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Ganoid Ctenoid Rhombus-shaped plates Similar in shape to the cycloid Arranged in diagonal rows, closely together The attached end is fluted Lacks enamel The free end has multiple toothlike projections Covered in ganoine Found in: (ganoid fishes) ○ Gar pike ○ Sturgeon Other Scale Types Cosmoid ○ The outer layer of an enamel-like substance Cycloid ○ The inner layer is made of cosmine Flexible, thin, and round (similar to dentine) Allows for greater freedom of movement ○ Has vascularized bone for a base Found in: ○ Some ganoid fishes (bowfins) ○ Teleosts 24 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 24  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Camptotrichia Paleoniscoid scales ○ Found in prehistoric, ray-finned fishes EXOSKELETON OF AMPHIBIANS from earlier periods 5.0 ⋆｡°✩ Lacks any exoskeleton of sorts Some may have minute dermal scales Extinct species had dermal plates homologous to fish scales EXOSKELETON OF REPTILES ⋆｡ 6.0 °✩ General Characteristics Horny scales (scutes) ○ Epidermal origin ○ Dense, cornified plates ○ Developed from the compression of old epidermal cells, as the stratum germinativum germinates new cells and pushes older ones to the top Dermal bony plates (plates) ○ Right beneath the horny scales Exoskeletons of Lizards & Snakes ⋆ 4.2 Scale Development ⋆｡°✩ 6.1 ｡°✩ Placoid Scale Epidermal scales overlap like shingles 1. Dermal cells multiply to form the dermal Lacks dermal plates papilla Head shields 2. Dermal papilla secretes dentine, generating ○ Enlarged epidermal scales found in the basal plate and the inner spine the facial regions of an animal 3. Stratum germinativum secretes enamel, coating the scale 4. Dermal papilla becomes a soft pulp 6.2 Exoskeletons of Turtles ⋆｡°✩ The Carapace 4.3 Fin Rays ⋆｡°✩ The dorsal portion of a Turtle’s shell Large thin, horny scutes marked by grooves Arranged in five rows longitudinally Fin rays – Appendages that give structural support to ○ One median a fin ○ Two pairs of lateral rows Types of scutes (based on arrangement): Types of fin rays ○ Nuchal – Anterior-most scute on the Ceratotrichia median row Actinotrichia Lepidotrichia 25 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 25  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 ○ Vertebral/Neural – The rest of the scutes on the median row ○ Marginal – A ring of scutes defining the boundaries of the carapace ○ Costal – Scutes in between the marginal and the vertebral scutes ○ Supracaudal/Pygial – A pair of scutes found at the base of the tail Dorsal Dermal Plates Vertebral column & ribs ○ Fused to the carapace at the median line The Plastron Also arranged in five longitudinal rows The ventral portion of a turtle’s shell An expansion of the vertebral column and is Types of scutes: thus considered part of the endoskeleton ○ Gular Types of plates: ○ Intergular ○ Nuchal ○ Humeral ○ Vertebral/Neural ○ Pectoral ○ Postneural/Precaudal ○ Abdominal ○ Costal ○ Femoral ○ Marginal ○ Anal ○ Pygial Sweat glands ○ Present only in the plastron and not the carapace 26 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 26  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 Ventral Dermal Plates Bony plates united by jagged structures Types: ○ Epiplastra ○ Entoplastron/Interclavicle ○ Hyoplastron ○ Hypoplastron ○ Xiphiplastra Other exoskeletal structures Lateral bridges ○ Covered with Inframarginal scutes Claws Horny beaks Thickened scaly areas by the appendages Enlarged head scutes 7.0 EXOSKELETON OF BIRDS ⋆｡°✩ Covered in feathers for the most part Scales and claws on feet Horny beaks All are of epidermal origin 7.1 Feather Structure ⋆｡°✩ 27 SUBJECT CODE - TITLE Have fun ^_^ 27  LBYBIO 3 - LE1 Section | Schedule | Teacher Benoza 2024 General Feather Anatomy Contour Feather Calamus/Quill – The stalk attaching to the skin of a bird The calamus is bare and has no barbs Rachis – An extension of the calamus, where The calamus is also hollow barbs are attached to ○ Inferior umbilicus – Proximal opening Barbs & barbules – Hair-like appendages that (junction at point of attachment) hook onto one another via hooklets to create ○ Superior umbilicus – Distal opening the shape of the feather (vane) (junction between quill and vane) Aftershaft Down Feather ○ An accessory feather found at the base of the vane Umbilical groove ○ Located at the ventral surface of the rachis Filoplume Feather Few terminal barbs Found in younger birds and in the bases of Rachis is bare for the most part other feathers within adult birds Barbs extend as soft rays Feather Tracts