Latvian Contract Law PDF
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Uploaded by RoomyGorgon
2020
Kalvis Torģāns, Janis Kārkliņš
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Summary
This book, published by Kluwer Law International, focuses on contract law in Latvia. It details specifics about civil law and its relation with specific types of civil law like obligations law, contract law and tort (delict) law. The authors are experts in the field and have published extensively on Latvian law.
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C O N T R A C T L A W I N L A T V I A K A L V I S T O R G A¯ N S J A¯ N I S K A¯ R K L I N¸ Š V A D I M M A N T R O V L A U R I S R A S N A Cˇ S C o n t r a c t L a w i n L a t v i a C o n t r a...
C O N T R A C T L A W I N L A T V I A K A L V I S T O R G A¯ N S J A¯ N I S K A¯ R K L I N¸ Š V A D I M M A N T R O V L A U R I S R A S N A Cˇ S C o n t r a c t L a w i n L a t v i a C o n t r a c t L a w i n L a t v i a K a l v i s T o r g a ¯ n s J a ¯ n i s K a ¯ r k l i n ¸ š V a d i m M a n t r o v L a u r i s R a s n a c Ï s T h i s b o o k w a s o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d a s a m o n o g r a p h i n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n c y c l o p a e d i a o f L a w s / C o n t r a c t s. F o u n d i n g E d i t o r : R o g e r B l a n p a i n G e n e r a l E d i t o r : F r a n k H e n d r i c k x Vo l u m e E d i t o r : J a c q u e s H e r b o t s P u b l i s h e d b y : K lu w e r L a w I n te r n a tio n a l B.V. P O B o x 3 1 6 2 4 0 0 A H A lp h e n a a n d e n R ijn T h e N e th e rla n d s E - m a il: in te r n a tio n a l- s a le s @ w o lte r s k lu w e r.c o m We b s ite : lr u s.w o lte r s k lu w e r.c o m S o l d a n d d i s t r i b u t e d b y : Wo lte r s K lu w e r L e g a l & R e g u la to r y U.S. 7 2 0 1 M c K in n e y C irc le F re d e ric k , M D 2 1 7 0 4 U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e ric a E m a il: c u s to m e r.s e r v ic e @ w o lte r s k lu w e r.c o m D IS C L A IM E R : T h e m a te ria l in th is v o lu m e is in th e n a tu re o f g e n e ra l c o m m e n t o n ly. It is n o t o ffe re d a s a d v ic e o n a n y p a rtic u la r m a tte r a n d s h o u ld n o t b e ta k e n a s s u c h. T h e e d ito r a n d th e c o n trib u tin g a u th o rs e x p re s s ly d is c la im a ll lia b ility to a n y p e rs o n w ith re g a rd to a n y th in g d o n e o r o m itte d to b e d o n e , a n d w ith re s p e c t to th e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n y th in g d o n e o r o m itte d to b e d o n e w h o lly o r p a rtly in re lia n c e u p o n th e w h o le o r a n y p a rt o f th e c o n te n ts o f t h is v o lu m e. N o re a d e r s h o u ld a c t o r re fra in fro m a c tin g o n th e b a s is o f a n y m a tte r c o n ta in e d in th is v o lu m e w ith o u t ® rs t o b ta in in g p ro fe s s io n a l a d v ic e re g a rd in g th e p a rtic u la r fa c ts a n d c irc u m s ta n c e s a t is s u e. A n y a n d a ll o p in io n s e x p re s s e d h e re in a re th o s e o f th e p a rtic u la r a u t h o r a n d a re n o t n e c e s s a rily th o s e o f th e e d ito r o r p u b lis h e r o f th is v o lu m e. P r i n t e d o n a c i d - f r e e p a p e r IS B N 9 7 8 -9 4 -0 3 5 -3 0 1 2 -3 e -B o o k : IS B N 9 7 8 -9 4 -0 3 5 -2 9 2 3 -3 w e b -P D F : IS B N 9 7 8 -9 4 -0 3 5 -2 9 2 4 -0 © 2 0 2 0 , K lu w e r L a w I n te r n a tio n a l B V, T h e N e th e r la n d s A ll rig h ts re s e rv e d. N o p a rt o f th is p u b lic a tio n m a y b e re p ro d u c e d , s to re d in a re trie v a l s y s te m , o r tra n s m itte d in a n y fo rm o r b y a n y m e a n s , e le c tro n ic , m e c h a n ic a l, p h o to c o p y in g , re c o rd in g , o r o th e rw is e , w ith o u t th e p rio r w ritte n p e rm is s io n o f th e p u b lis h e r. P e rm is s io n to u s e th is c o n te n t m u s t b e o b ta in e d fro m th e c o p y rig h t o w n e r. M o re in fo rm a tio n c a n b e f o u n d a t: lr u s.w o lte r s k lu w e r.c o m /p o lic ie s /p e r m is s io n s - r e p r in ts - a n d - lic e n s in g P rin te d in th e U n ite d K in g d o m. T h e A u th o rs K a l v i s T o r g a n s ( K a l v i s T o r g ā n s ) , D r. h a b i l. i u r. , i s a P r o - fe s s o r o f C iv il L a w a t th e F a c u lty o f L a w o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia. H e is a ls o a F u ll M e m b e r o f th e L a tv ia n A c a d - e m y o f S c ie n c e s a n d a n e x p e rt in le g a l s c ie n c e a p p ro v e d b y th e S c ie n c e C o u n c il o f L a tv ia. H is m a in re s e a rc h in te re s ts a re re la te d to c iv il la w, c o m - m e rc ia l la w, c o n s u m e r p ro te c tio n la w a n d c iv il p ro c e d u re la w. H e is th e a u th o r/ c o -a u th o r o f a p p ro x im a te ly 3 5 0 s c i- e n ti® c p u b lic a tio n s in L a tv ia n , E n g lis h a n d R u s s ia n in c lu d - in g th o s e w h ic h a re in d e x e d in th e S c o p u s a n d /o r We b o f S c i e n c e d a t a b a s e s. H e h a s p a r t i c i p a t e d a s a c o - a u t h o r i n t h e p re p a ra tio n o f th re e v o lu m e s o f th e D ig e s t o f E u ro p e a n T o r t L a w , c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r E u r o p e a n T o r t L a w ( E S R / E T L ) o f t h e A u s - tria n A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s , a n d th e m o n o g ra p h T h e L a w o f th e B a ltic S ta te s. H e is a c o -a u th o r a n d /o r a n e d ito r o f th e m o s t p o p u la r m o n o g ra p h s in c iv il la w in L a tv ia s u c h a s th e m o n o g ra p h C o m m e n ta r y o n C iv il L a w o f th e R e p u b lic o f L a tv ia. O b li- g a t i o n s L a w ( 1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 0 , a n e d i t o r a n d a c o - a u t h o r ) ; P r o b l e m s o f C o n t r a c t a n d T o r t L a w ( 2 0 1 3 ) o f w h i c h a s u p p le m e n te d e d itio n w a s p u b lis h e d a s P ro b le m s o f C o n - t r a c t a n d T o r t L a w i n t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d L a t v i a ( 2 0 1 7 , t o g e t h e r w i t h J. K ā r - k l i n ¸ sÏ a n d A. B i t ā n s ) a n d L a w o f O b l i g a t i o n s ( 2 0 0 6 , 2 0 0 8 , 2 0 1 4 , 2 0 1 8 ). H e h a s s u c c e s s fu lly s u p e rv is e d a n d p a rtic ip a te d in s e v e ra l s c ie n ti® c p ro je c ts s u c h a s th e N e w C o m m e rc ia l L a w A c t a n d Its Im p le m e n ta tio n (2 0 0 1 ± 2 0 0 3 ) a n d A p p li- c a t i o n a n d F u r t h e r A p p r o x i m a t i o n o f L a t v i a 's P r i v a t e L a w i n t h e F r a m e w o r k o f t h e E U (2 0 0 4 ± 2 0 0 8 ). F u rth e r, h e fre q u e n tly p a rtic ip a te s a s a n e x p e rt in d is c u s s io n o f d ra ft le g a l a c ts in c o m m itte e s o f th e L a tv ia n p a rlia m e n t a n d h a s p ro v id e d e x p e rt o p in io n s fo r m o re th a n s ix ty d ra ft la w s a n d re g u la tio n s o f th e C a b in e t o f M in is te rs. H is s c ie n ti® c a n d p e d a g o g ic a l w o rk is c lo s e ly c o n n e c te d w ith c o u rt p ra c tic e. P ro - fe s s o r To rg a n s w a s a d m itte d to th e L a tv ia n B a r A s s o c ia tio n in 1 9 9 2. H e s u s p e n d e d h is m e m b e rs h ip fo r s ix y e a rs (2 0 0 8 -2 0 1 4 ) w h ile h e w a s th e S e n a to r (ju d g e ) o f th e S u p re m e C o u rt o f L a tv ia. T h e a c a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n ts o f P ro fe s s o r To rg a n s h a v e b e e n n o te d a n d a p p re c i- a te d b y th e L a tv ia n S ta te , th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia a n d th e s c ie n ti® c c o m m u n ity. H e h a s re c e iv e d th e Aw a rd o f th e C a b in e t o f M in is te rs (2 0 0 5 ), th e O rd e r o f th e T h re e S ta rs (2 0 0 9 ) a n d th e G o ld E m b le m o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia (2 0 1 4 ) fo r h is lo n g - te rm c o n trib u tio n to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f L a tv ia 's le g a l s y s te m ; th e G ra n d M e d a l o f 3 T h e A u t h o r s th e L a tv ia n A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s o f L a tv ia fo r o u ts ta n d in g c re a tiv e re s e a rc h a c h ie v e m e n ts (2 0 1 8 ); a n d o th e r d e c o ra tio n s. J a n i s K a r k l i n s ( J ā n i s K ā r k l i n ¸ sÏ ) , D r. i u r. , i s P r o f e s s o r o f C iv il L a w a n d H e a d o f th e C iv il d e p a rtm e n t a t th e F a c u lty o f L a w o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia. H e w a s a p p o in te d a n d la te r re g u la rly re a p p o in te d a s a n e x p e rt in le g a l s c ie n c e b y th e S c ie n c e C o u n c il o f L a tv ia s in c e 2 0 0 8. H is m a in re s e a rc h in te re s ts a re re la te d to c iv il la w a n d its re la tio n s h ip w ith s p e c ia l c iv il la w b ra n c h e s s u c h a s o b li- g a tio n la w (c o n tra c t la w a n d d e lic t (to rt) la w ), c o m m e rc ia l la w (e s p e c ia lly c o m m e rc ia l c o n tra c ts ), b a n k in g la w, e tc. H e is th e a u th o r a n d c o -a u th o r o f a p p ro x im a te ly s ix ty s c ie n ti® c p u b lic a tio n s in L a tv ia n a n d E n g lis h in c lu d in g th o s e w h ic h a re in d e x e d in th e S c o p u s a n d /o r We b o f S c i- e n c e d a t a b a s e s. H e i s t h e c o - a u t h o r o f t h e m o n o g r a p h P r o b l e m s o f C o n t r a c t a n d T o r t L a w i n E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d L a t v i a (2 0 1 7 ) in L a tv ia n a s w e ll a s th e c o -a u th o r o f th e S p r in g e r m o n o g ra p h T h e L a w o f th e B a ltic S ta te s (2 0 1 7 ). H e h a s d e liv e re d p a p e rs o n to p ic a l c iv il la w is s u e s in m o re th a n th irty in te rn a - tio n a l a n d d o m e s tic s c ie n ti® c c o n fe re n c e s in L a tv ia a n d o th e r E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s. H e is a re g u la r m e m b e r o f o rg a n iz a tio n c o m m itte e s , w h ic h a re re s p o n s ib le fo r o rg a - n iz in g th e in te rn a tio n a l s c ie n ti® c c o n fe re n c e s o f th e F a c u lty o f L a w, U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia. H e re c e iv e d a L a tv ia n s ta te a w a rd F o r c o n tr ib u tio n to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e R e g i s t e r o f E n t e r p r i s e s o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f L a t v i a in 2 0 1 3. J a n is K a rk lin s h a s b e e n a n o ffic ia l e x p e rt o f th e L a tv ia n C o n s titu tio n a l C o u rt o n c iv il la w a s p e c ts re la te d to h u m a n rig h ts. H e is a m e m b e r o f th e P ro m o tio n C o u n c il o f th e F a c u lty o f L a w o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia. H e h a s s u c c e s s fu lly s u p e rv is e d a n d /o r p a rtic ip a te d in in te rn a tio n a l a n d d o m e s tic s c ie n ti® c p ro je c ts , L a tv ia n s ta te re s e a rc h p ro g ra m m e s a n d re s e a rc h p ro g ra m m e s o f th e E u ro p e a n C o m m is s io n. H e fre q u e n tly p a rtic ip a te s a s a n e x p e rt in d is c u s s io n o f d ra ft le g a l a c ts in m in is trie s a n d c o m m itte e s o f th e L a tv ia n p a rlia m e n t. H e h a s b e e n p ra c tis in g a s a n a tto rn e y -a t-la w fo r m o re th a n tw e lv e y e a rs s in c e h e w a s a d m itte d to th e L a tv ia n B a r A s s o c ia tio n in 2 0 0 7 a s a n a tto rn e y. H e ru n s h is la w ® rm , is m a rrie d a n d h a s tw o c h ild re n. Va d im M a n tr o v ( Va d im s M a n tr o v s ) , D r. iu r., is a D o c e n t o f C iv il L a w a n d R e s e a rc h F e llo w a t th e F a c u lty o f L a w o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia a n d is a ls o th e H e a d o f th e L e g a l S c ie n c e In s titu te o f th e F a c u lty o f L a w. H e w a s a p p o in te d a n d la te r re g u la rly re a p p o in te d a s a n e x p e rt in le g a l s c i- e n c e b y th e S c ie n c e C o u n c il o f L a tv ia s in c e 2 0 1 2. H is m a in re s e a rc h in te re s ts a re re la te d to c iv il la w a n d its re la tio n s h ip w ith s p e c ia l c iv il la w b ra n c h e s s u c h a s in s u ra n c e la w (a s w e ll a s ris k re g u la tio n in g e n e ra l), c o n - s u m e r p ro te c tio n , in te lle c tu a l p ro p e rty (e s p e c ia lly in c o n - ju n c tio n w ith fo o d la w a n d p ro d u c t q u a lity p ro te c tio n ). 4 T h e A u t h o r s H e is th e a u th o r a n d c o -a u th o r o f a p p ro x im a te ly s ix ty s c ie n ti® c p u b lic a tio n s in L a tv ia n , E n g lis h a n d R u s s ia n in c lu d in g th o s e w h ic h a re in d e x e d in th e S c o p u s a n d / o r We b o f S c ie n c e d a ta b a s e s. H is a u th o re d m o n o g ra p h p u b lis h e d b y S p r in g e r 1 w a s re c o g n iz e d a s o n e o f th e s c ie n ti® c a c h ie v e m e n ts in L a tv ia n s c ie n c e in 2 0 1 5 b y th e L a tv ia n A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s. L ik e w is e , th e L a tv ia n A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s re c o g - n iz e d h is c o -a u th o re d m o n o g ra p h p u b lis h e d b y L U A c a d e m ic P re s s 2 a s o n e o f th e s c ie n ti® c a c h ie v e m e n ts in L a tv ia n s c ie n c e in 2 0 1 8. H e h a s p re s e n te d a n d d e liv e re d p a p e rs o n to p ic a l c iv il la w is s u e s in m o re th a n th irty in te rn a tio n a l a n d d o m e s tic s c ie n ti® c c o n fe re n c e s in L a tv ia a n d o th e r E u ro - p e a n c o u n trie s a s w e ll a s in R u s s ia. H e h a s s u c c e s s fu lly s u p e rv is e d a n d /o r p a rtic ip a te d in s e v e ra l in te rn a tio n a l a n d d o m e s tic s c ie n ti® c p ro je c ts in c lu d in g p a rtic ip a tio n in th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f H 2 0 2 0 , J U S T p ro je c ts , a L a tv ia n s ta te re s e a rc h p ro g ra m m e , a n d in te rn a l p ro je c ts o f th e U n i- v e rs ity o f L a tv ia. A d d itio n a lly , h e fre q u e n tly p a rtic ip a te s a s a n e x p e rt in d is c u s s io n o f d ra ft le g a l a c ts in c o m m itte e s o f th e L a tv ia n p a rlia m e n t. P re v io u s ly , h e w a s in le g a l p ra c tic e fo r m o re th a n te n y e a rs , b e in g a d m itte d to th e L a tv ia n B a r A s s o c ia tio n in 2 0 0 5 in itia lly a s a n a s s o c ia te a tto rn e y b u t s in c e 2 0 0 8 a s a n a tto rn e y , th o u g h h e s u s p e n d e d m e m b e rs h ip in 2 0 1 5 d u e to a c a d e m ic w o rk. H e h a s b e e n a L a tv ia n a n d E u ro p e a n tra d e m a rk a g e n t s in c e 2 0 0 8 , th o u g h h e s u s p e n d e d a c tiv ity in 2 0 1 5 d u e to a c a d e m ic w o rk. L a u r i s R a s n a c s ( L a u r i s R a s n a cÏ s ) , D r. i u r. , i s a L e c t u r e r i n C iv il L a w a t th e F a c u lty o f L a w o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia. H e is th e a u th o r o f s o m e tw e n ty s c ie n ti® c p u b lic a tio n s in E n g lis h a n d L a tv ia n re la te d to c iv il p ro c e d u re la w a n d a lte rn a tiv e d is p u te re s o lu tio n , c iv il la w a n d its s p e c ia l b ra n c h e s , fo r in s ta n c e , c o m m e rc ia l la w, in te lle c tu a l p ro p - e rty la w a n d c o m p e titio n la w. H e h a s a ls o tra n s la te d h is - to ric a l le g a l a rtic le s fro m G e rm a n to L a tv ia n. H e h a s p a rtic ip a te d in a b o u t te n in te rn a tio n a l a n d d o m e s tic s c ie n ti® c c o n fe re n c e s. H e w a s a n e x p e rt o f th e C o n s u lta tiv e C o u n c il o f th e R e g is te r o f E n te rp ris e s o f th e R e p u b lic o f L a tv ia fro m 2 0 1 1 to 2 0 1 3. H e w a s a m e m b e r o f th e w o rk in g g ro u p e s ta b lis h e d b y th e L a tv ia n C h a m b e r o f C o m m e rc e a n d In d u s try fo r d ra ftin g th e n e w 1. M a n tr o v , V. E U L a w o f I n d ic a tio n s o f G e o g r a p h ic a l O r ig in. C h a m : S p r in g e r, 2 0 1 4. 2. R o d i n ¸ a , A. , e t a l. T i e s i s k a i s i e t v a r s : I e s k a t s. S e c i n a¯ j u m i u n i e t e i k u m i. L a b a¯ p r a k s e. P o z i t ¯õ v a¯ s t e n - d e n c e s l i k u m d o sÏ a n a¯ u n t i e s ¯õ b p i e m e¯ r o sÏ a n a¯ [ L e g a l F r a m e w o r k : I n s i g h t. C o n c l u s i o n s a n d R e c o m m e n - d a t i o n s. G o o d P r a c t i c e. P o s i t i v e T r e n d s i n L e g i s l a t i o n a n d L a w E n f o r c e m e n t ]. G r a¯ m. : S i m t a m P a¯ ri. V i e d a¯ L a t v i j a : V a l s t s p e¯ t ¯õ j u m u p r o g r a m m a E K O S O C - L V ` T a u t s a i m n i e c ¯õ b a s t r a n s f o r m a¯ c i j a , g u d ra i z a u g s m e , p a¯ r v a l d ¯õ b a u n t i e s i s k a i s i e t v a r s v a l s t s u n s a b i e d r ¯õ b a s i l g t s p e¯ j ¯õ g a i a t t ¯õ s t ¯õ b a i - j a u n a s p i e e - j a s i l g t s p e¯ j ¯õ g a s z i n a¯ sÏ a n u s a b i e d r ¯õ b a s v e i d o sÏ a n a i ' [ O n e H u n d r e d Y e a r s. S m a r t L a t v i a : N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m E K O S O C - L V ` T r a n s f o r m i n g t h e N a t i o n a l E c o n o m y , S m a r t G r o w t h , G o v e r n a n c e a n d t h e L e g a l F r a m e w o r k f o r S u s t a i n a b l e D e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e S t a t e a n d S o c i e t y ± N e w A p p r o a c h e s t o C r e a t i n g a S u s t a i n a b l e K n o w l e d g e S o c i e t y ' ]. R ¯õ g a : L a t v i j a s Z i n a¯ t n ¸ u a k a d e¯ m i j a , 2 0 1 8 , 2 2 3. - 2 5 0.lp p. 5 T h e A u t h o r s L a tv ia n A rb itra tio n L a w in 2 0 1 2. S in c e 2 0 1 7 h e h a s b e e n a m e m b e r o f th e p e rm a - n e n t w o rk in g g ro u p o n a m e n d m e n ts to L a tv ia n C iv il P ro c e d u re L a w. S in c e 2 0 0 7 h e h a s b e e n w o rk in g a s a n a tto rn e y -a t-la w a n d s in c e 2 0 1 1 a s a tra d e m a rk a g e n t a n d s in c e 2 0 1 2 a s a E u ro p e a n tra d e m a rk a g e n t. 6 Ta b le o f C o n te n ts T h e A u th o rs 3 L is t o f A b b re v ia tio n s 1 5 P re fa c e 1 7 G e n e ra l In tro d u c tio n 2 1 § 1. G E N E R A L B A C K G R O U N D O F T H E C O U N T R Y 2 1 § 2. T O W H A T L E G A L F A M IL Y ( E.G., C O M M O N L A W , T H E F R E N C H L E G A L F A M IL Y , I S L A M IC L A W ) D O E S L AT V IA N L A W B E L O N G ? 2 3 § 3. I S P R IM A C Y O F L E G IS L A T IO N A C H A R A C T E R IS T IC O F T H E L A T V IA N L E G A L S Y S T E M ? 3 1 § 4. T H E P O S IT IO N O F T H E J U D IC IA R Y 3 2 § 5. D ISTINCT IO N B E T W E E N P U B L IC L A W A N D P R IV A T E L A W (`A DMINI S T R A T IV E C O N T R A C T S ') 3 3 § 6. D IST IN C T IO N B E T W E E N C IV IL L A W A N D C O M M E R C IA L L A W (`C O M M E R C IA L C O N T R A C T S ') 3 5 In tro d u c tio n to th e L a w o f C o n tra c ts 3 9 § 1. D C ONTRACT E F IN IT IO N O F 3 9 I. D e ® n itio n o f C o n tra c t 3 9 II. C o n tra c t a s a Ty p e o f L e g a l Tra n s a c tio n 4 0 III. U n ila te ra l L e g a l Tra n s a c tio n s 4 1 I V. E le m e n ts o f a C o n tr a c t 4 1 V. C o n tr a c t a s a S o u r c e o f O b lig a tio n s 4 2 V I. C o n tra c t a n d P ro p e rty R ig h ts (Iu s in R e m ) 4 3 V II. T h e C o n c e p t o f P a trim o n y 4 3 V III. P lu ra lity o f O b lig o rs a n d O b lig e e s : C o n tra c ts w ith M o re th a n Tw o P a rtie s ± T h e D iffe re n c e B e tw e e n a `Tw o -P a rty ' a n d a `T h re e -P a rty ' C o n tra c t 4 4 IX. N o B a rg a in R e q u ire d 4 5 7 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s § 2. H B ACKGROU IS T O R IC A L N D T O T H E L AW OF C ONTRACTS 4 5 I. In fl u e n c e o f R o m a n , G e rm a n a n d R u s s ia n L a w 4 5 II. D e v e lo p m e n t A fte r 1 9 4 0 4 6 III. M o d e rn iz a tio n o f C o n tra c t L a w a fte r R e s to ra tio n o f P a rt IV o f th e C iv il L a w in 1 9 9 3 4 7 § 3. C L A S S IF IC A T IO N O F C ONTRACTS 4 8 I. B ila te ra l a n d U n ila te ra l C o n tra c ts 4 9 II. O n e ro u s a n d G ra tu ito u s C o n tra c ts 5 0 III. C o n s e n s u a l a n d R e a l C o n tra c ts 5 0 I V. C o m m u ta tiv e a n d A le a to ry C o n tra c ts 5 1 V. C o n s u m e r C o n tra c ts , C o m m e rc ia l C o n tra c ts a n d C o n tra c ts R e g u la te d o n ly b y th e C iv il L a w 5 1 V I. S ta n d a rd C o n tra c ts 5 2 V II. P u b lic C o n tra c ts 5 3 V III. N o m in a te a n d In n o m in a te C o n tra c ts 5 3 IX. M a in C o n tra c ts a n d A c c e s s o ry C o n tra c ts 5 4 X. M ix e d C o n tra c ts 5 4 § 4. C O N T R A C T A N D D E L IC T (T O R T ) 5 5 § 5. C O N T R A C T A N D T H E L A W O F P R O P E R T Y 5 6 § 6. C O N T R A C T A N D T R U S T 5 7 § 7. G O O D F A IT H A N D F A IR D E A L IN G 5 7 § 8. S T Y L E O F D R A F T IN G 5 9 § 9. S O U R C E S O F T H E L AW OF C O N T R A C T S 6 0 I. Ty p e s o f S o u rc e s o f L a w 6 0 II. P u b lic a n d P riv a te L a w 6 1 § 1 0. S O U R C E S O F T H E L A W O F C O N T R A C T S 6 2 I. L e g is la tio n 6 2 II. C o u rt P ra c tic e 6 2 P a rt I. G e n e ra l P rin c ip le s o f th e L a w o f C o n tra c t 6 3 C h a p te r 1. F o rm a tio n 6 3 § 1. A G R E E M E N T A N D Q UID P R O Q U O (R E C IP R O C IT Y ) 6 3 I. O ffe r a n d A c c e p ta n c e 6 3 A. O ffe r 6 4 B. A c c e p ta n c e 6 6 II. In te n t io n to C re a te L e g a l R e la tio n s 6 7 III. C o n s i d e ra tio n 6 8 8 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s A. C o n s id e ra tio n a s a R e q u ire m e n t in L a tv ia n C o n tra c t L a w 6 8 B. G ra tu ito u s P ro m is e s 6 8 C. N a t u ra l O b li g a tio n s 6 9 I V. M o d i® c a tio n s to C o n tra c t 7 0 § 2. F O R M A L A N D E VIDENTIAL R EQUIREMENTS 7 3 I. F o rm a l R e q u ire m e n ts 7 3 A. C o n tra c ts u n d e r S e a l 7 5 B. O ra l A g re e m e n ts 7 5 C. C o n tra c ts C o n c lu d e d b y th e C o n d u c t o f th e P a rtie s 7 6 D. C o n tra c ts C o n c lu d e d in S im p le Writte n F o rm 7 6 E. C o n tra c ts C o n c lu d e d in N o ta ria l F o rm o r O th e rw is e P u b lic ly A c k n o w le d g e d 7 8 F. C o n tra c ts C o n c lu d e d in E le c tro n ic F o rm 7 9 II. E v id e n tia l R e q u ire m e n t 8 0 A. G e n e ra l P ro v is io n s 8 0 B. M e a n s o f E v id e n c e 8 1 1. Writte n E v id e n c e 8 1 2. Te s tim o n y 8 2 3. O th e r F o rm s o f E v id e n c e 8 3 C. F u n c tio n o f th e N o ta ry 8 3 III. B u rd e n o f P ro o f 8 5 § 3. L IA B IL IT Y A N D N EGOTIATIONS 8 6 I. P re -c o n tra c tu a l L ia b ility 8 6 II. B re a k d o w n o f N e g o tia tio n s 8 7 C h a p te r 2. C o n d itio n s o f S u b s ta n tiv e Va lid ity 9 0 § 1. C A P A C IT Y O F T H E P A R T IE S 9 0 § 2. D C ONSENT E F E C T S O F 9 3 I. M is ta k e 9 3 II. M is re p re s e n ta tio n 1 0 1 III. Im p ro p e r P re s s u re 1 0 6 § 3. O T H E R C ONDITIONS OF VALIDITY 1 0 9 I. L ic it A im 1 0 9 II. D e te rm in e d o r D e te rm in a b le , P o s s ib le a n d E n fo rc e a b le O b je c t o f th e Tra n s a c tio n 1 1 4 § 4. C ONSEQUENCES OF A D EFECT OF C ON S E N T O R L A C K O F S UBSTANTIVE VALIDITY 1 1 6 I. N u llity a n d Its R e tro a c tiv e E ffe c t 1 1 7 II. D a m a g e s 1 1 9 C h a p te r 3. T h e C o n te n ts o f a C o n tra c t 1 2 1 9 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s § 1. T D IFFERENT C LAUSES H E 1 2 3 I. A s c e rta in in g E x p re s s Te rm s 1 2 3 II. Im p lie d Te rm s 1 2 3 III. S ta n d a rd Te rm s a n d E x e m p tio n C la u s e s 1 2 5 I V. P e n a lty C la u s e s 1 2 6 V. A r b itr a tio n C la u s e s 1 2 6 § 2. I N T E R P R E T A T IO N 1 2 7 § 3. C O N D IT IO N A L C O N T R A C T S 1 2 8 C h a p te r 4. P riv ity o f C o n tra c t 1 2 9 § 1. T H E R ULE OF P RIVITY OF C ONTRACT 1 2 9 I. T h ird P a rtie s a n d th e C o n tra c t 1 2 9 II. C o n tra c t F o r th e B e n e ® t o f a T h ird P a rty 1 3 0 § 2. T R A N S F E R O F C O N T R A C T U A L R IG H T S 1 3 2 I. N o v a tio n 1 3 2 II. A s s ig n m e n t 1 3 4 § 3. S U B C O N T R A C T IN G 1 3 9 § 4. A C T I O P A U L I A N A 1 4 0 C h a p te r 5. Te rm in a tio n o f C o n tra c t 1 4 2 § 1. P E R F O R M A N C E A N D B REACH 1 4 2 I. G e n e ra l R e g u la tio n 1 4 2 II. P e rfo rm a n c e o f O b lig a tio n 1 4 3 III. B re a c h 1 4 4 I V. O th e r Ty p e s o f Te rm in a tin g a n O b lig a tio n (O th e r T h a n P e rfo rm a n c e ) 1 4 4 § 2. I M P O S S IB IL IT Y , F R U S T R A T IO N A N D H A R D S H IP : `T H E U N F O R E S E E N ' 1 4 7 § 3. D IS C H A RG E B Y A G R E E M E N T 1 4 9 C h a p te r 6. R e m e d ie s 1 5 1 § 1. G E N E R A L P R O V IS IO N S 1 5 1 § 2. E N F O R C E M E N T O F P E R F O R M A N C E (S P E C IF IC P E R F O R M A N C E ) 1 5 2 § 3. W IT H H O L D IN G P E R F O R M A N C E 1 5 4 1 0 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s § 4. P R IC E R E D U C T IO N 1 5 4 § 5. T E R M IN A T IO N 1 5 5 § 6. L IM IT A T IO N O F A CTIONS AND P R E S C R IP T IO N 1 5 9 I. In te rru p tio n o f P re s c rip tio n 1 6 1 II. S u s p e n s io n o f P re s c rip tio n 1 6 2 § 7. D A M A G E S A N D E X E M P T IO N C L A U S E S 1 6 2 § 8. R E S T IT U T IO N 1 6 5 § 9. C U R E B Y O B L IG O R O F N O N - C O N F O R M IN G P E R F O R M A N C E 1 6 6 P a rt II. S p e c i® c C o n tra c ts 1 6 7 C h a p te r 1. A g e n c y a n d O th e r C o n tra c tu a l R e la tio n s h ip s R e la te d to M a n a g in g S o m e o n e E ls e 's P ro p e rty 1 6 7 § 1. A U T H O R IZ A T IO N C O N T R A C T 1 6 7 § 2. A D V IC E A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N 1 7 4 § 3. C O M M IS S IO N C ONTRACT 1 7 5 I. G e n e ra l R e g u la tio n o f a C o m m is s io n C o n tra c t in th e C iv il L a w 1 7 5 II. S p e c ia l R e g u la tio n fo r C o m m e rc ia l C o m m is s io n C o n tra c ts in th e C o m m e rc ia l L a w 1 7 7 § 4. U N A U T H O R IZ E D M A N A G E M E N T 1 7 7 § 5. P ROVISIONS C OMMON T O A L L C O N T R A C T U A L R E L A T IO N S H IP S O N M ANAGING S OMEONE E L S E ' S P R O P E R T Y 1 7 8 C h a p te r 2. B a ilm e n t a n d O th e r R e tu rn C o n tra c ts 1 8 0 § 1. B A IL M E N T 1 8 0 § 2. L E N D IN G 1 8 4 C h a p te r 3. G a m in g a n d Wa g e rin g 1 8 7 § 1. R E G U L A T IO N O F G A M B L IN G A N D W A G E R IN G IN T H E C IV IL L A W 1 8 9 § 2. R E G U L A T IO N O F L O T T E R IE S IN T H E C IV IL L A W 1 9 0 § 3. G A M B L IN G A N D L O T T E R IE S : S P E C IA L R E G U L A T IO N IN T H E L A W O N G A M B L IN G A N D L O T T E R IE S 1 9 1 1 1 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s C h a p te r 4. S a le o f G o o d s a n d O th e r C o n tra c ts fo r Tra n s fe r o f O w n e rs h ip 1 9 3 § 1. G E N E R A L P R O V IS IO N S 1 9 3 I. O b je c t 1 9 4 II. P ric e 1 9 7 § 2. D E L IV E R Y 1 9 8 § 3. T R A N S F E R O F O WNERSHIP AND R ISK 1 9 9 I. O w n e rs h ip 1 9 9 II. T h e O p tio n o f R e p u rc h a s e 2 0 0 III. P a s s in g o f R is k 2 0 1 I V. P a r ty A u to n o m y a n d R e te n tio n -o f-Title C la u s e 2 0 3 § 4. S E L L E R ' S WARRANTY OF TITLE AND Q U A L IT Y 2 0 3 I. S a le b y a N o n -o w n e r 2 0 3 II. Wa rra n ty A g a in s t D is p o s s e s s io n 2 0 4 III. Wa rra n ty o f Q u a lity 2 0 6 § 5. R E M E D IE S O F T H E U NPAID S ELLER 2 0 8 I. S p e c i® c P e rfo rm a n c e 2 0 8 II. S e lle r 's R ig h t to R e s c in d a n d R e c o v e r 2 0 9 III. With h o ld in g P e rfo rm a n c e 2 1 0 § 6. S A L E B Y I N S T A L M E N T S 2 1 1 § 7. S U P P L Y 2 1 2 § 8. B A R T E R 2 1 3 C h a p te r 5. C o n tra c ts fo r Wo rk a n d S e rv ic e s (In c lu d in g B u ild in g C o n tra c ts , H ire o f Wo rk a n d S k ills ) 2 1 5 § 1. C O N C E P T S O F W O R K A N D S E R V IC E S : T Y P E S O F C O N T R A C T 2 1 5 § 2. C O N T R A C T F O R WORK P ERFORMANCE 2 1 6 I. D iffe re n c e s B e tw e e n a n E m p lo y m e n t C o n tra c t a n d a C o n tra c t fo r Wo rk P e rfo rm a n c e 2 1 7 II. C o n te n t o f a C o n tra c t fo r Wo rk P e rf o rm a n c e 2 1 8 III. D u tie s o f th e C o n tra c to r 2 1 9 I V. R ig h ts a n d D u tie s o f th e C o m m is s io n in g P a rty 2 2 1 V. Te r m in a tio n o f a C o n tra c t fo r Wo rk P e rfo rm a n c e 2 2 3 § 3. B U IL D IN G C ONTRACT (C O N T R A C T F O R C O N S T R U C T IO N W O R K ) 2 2 4 I. G e n e ra l P ro v is io n s 2 2 4 1 2 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s I. C o n te n ts a n d S p e c i® c F e a tu re s o f C o n tra c t fo r C o n s tru c tio n Wo rk 2 2 6 II. R e s p o n s ib ility a n d C iv il L ia b ility 2 2 6 C h a p te r 6. L e a s e a n d R e n ta l C o n tra c ts 2 2 8 § 1. G E N E R A L P R O V IS IO N S 2 2 8 § 2. S U B J E C T M A T T E R O F L E A S E A N D R E N T 2 2 9 § 3. P A Y M E N T S 2 3 0 § 4. D U T IE S O F L E S S O R O R R E N T E R 2 3 0 § 5. D U T IE S O F L E S S E E O R T E N A N T 2 3 1 § 6. T E R M IN A T IO N O F L E A S E S A N D R E N T A L C O N T R A C T S 2 3 2 C h a p te r 7. C o m p ro m is e S e ttle m e n t 2 3 4 C h a p te r 8. S u re ty s h ip 2 3 6 C h a p te r 9. P le d g e a n d O th e r In s tru m e n ts fo r R e in fo rc in g O b lig a tio n s 2 4 0 § 1. P L E D G E 2 4 0 § 2. C O N T R A C T U A L P E N A L T Y 2 4 3 § 3. E A R N E S T M O N E Y 2 4 5 C h a p te r 1 0. L o a n C o n tra c ts 2 4 8 § 1. G E N E R A L P R O V IS IO N S 2 4 8 § 2. P A Y M E N T O F I N T E R E S T 2 4 9 § 3. R E P A Y M E N T O F L O A N 2 5 1 C h a p te r 1 1. C o n tra c ts w ith th e G o v e rn m e n t a n d O th e r P u b lic A d m in is tra tiv e B o d ie s 2 5 3 § 1. P U B L IC P R O C U R E M E N T 2 5 4 1 3 T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s § 2. E XPLOITA T IO N O F R IG H T S R E L A T IN G T O T H IN G S O W N E D B Y P U B L IC A DMINIST R A T IV E B O D IE S 2 5 6 C h a p te r 1 2. C o n tra c t o f P a rtn e rs h ip 2 5 8 C h a p te r 1 3. Q u a s i-c o n tra c ts 2 6 4 § 1. N E G O T I O R U M G E S T I O 2 6 4 § 2. E N R IC H M E N T W IT H O U T C A U S E A N D M O N E Y P A ID B U T N O T D U E 2 6 7 C h a p te r 1 4. D o n a tio n 2 7 2 § 1. G E N E R A L P R O V IS IO N S 2 7 2 § 2. L E G A L C O N S E Q U E N C E S O F D O N A T IO N 2 7 4 § 3. R E V O C A T IO N O F D O N A T IO N C O N T R A C T 2 7 4 § 4. S TYPES OF P E C IA L D ONATION 2 7 6 I. D o n a tio n o f E n tire P ro p e rty 2 7 6 II. D o n a tio n w ith B in d in g D ire c tio n s 2 7 7 III. D o n a tio n a s R e m u n e ra tio n 2 7 7 S e le c te d B ib lio g ra p h y 2 7 9 In d e x 2 8 3 1 4 L is t o f A b b re v ia tio n s C a b in e t C a b in e t o f M in is te rs o f th e R e p u b lic o f L a tv ia (L a tv ija s R e p u b lik a s M in is tr u k a b in e ts in L a tv ia n ) C IS G U n ite d N a tio n s C o n v e n tio n o n C o n tra c ts fo r th e In te rn a tio n a l S a le o f G o o d s C J E U C o u rt o f J u s tic e o f th e E u ro p e a n U n io n (th is te rm a ls o c o v e rs th e p re v io u s title o f th e c o u rt, th a t is , th e E u ro p e a n C o u rt o f J u s tic e ) 3 C iv il L a w, C L C iv il L a w 4 o f th e R e p u b lic o f L a tv ia a d o p te d in 1 9 3 7 ( L a tv ija s R e p u b lik a s 1 9 3 7.g a d a C iv illik u m s in L a tv ia n )5 C iv il P ro c e d u re L a w, C P L C iv il P ro c e d u re L a w ( C i v i l p r o c e s a l i k u m s in L a tv ia n ) D C F R D ra ft C o m m o n F ra m e o f R e fe re n c e ± P rin c ip le s , D e ® n itio n s a n d M o d e l R u le s o f E u ro p e a n P riv a te L a w E C E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ity E E C E u ro p e a n E c o n o m ic C o m m u n ity E E Z E u ro p e a n E c o n o m ic Z o n e 3. N o te th a t le g a l a c ts o f L a tv ia a s w e ll a s o th e r c o u n tr ie s , e.g., G e r m a n y , a r e r e f e r r e d to in th is m o n o - g ra p h (u s u a lly in fo o tn o te s ) b y u s in g a b b re v ia tio n s o f th e ir title s re c o g n iz e d in le g a l p ra c tic e. 4. Title s o f o ffic ia l tra n s la tio n s o f L a tv ia n le g a l a c ts u s e th e te rm `L a w ' in s te a d o f `A c t'. S in c e th is m o n o g ra p h c o v e rs th e title s o f o ffic ia l tra n s la tio n s o f L a tv ia n le g a l a c ts , p re fe re n c e is g iv e n to th e fo rm e r te rm. 5. T h is m o n o g ra p h is p re p a re d b y re fe re n c e to o ffic ia l te x ts o f L a tv ia n le g a l a c ts. A t th e s a m e tim e , w h e n a p a rtic u la r le g a l a c t is c ite d fo r th e ® rs t tim e , re fe re n c e is m a d e to its o ffic ia l tra n s la tio n in to E n g lis h. T h e s e a re p re p a re d b y th e S ta te L a n g u a g e C e n tre o n th e b a s is o f th e R e g u la tio n o f th e S ta te L a n g u a g e C e n tre (n o o ffic ia l tra n s la tio n in to E n g lis h a v a ila b le ) P o in t 2 o f w h ic h p ro v id e s th a t o n e o f th e C e n tre 's a im s is to e n s u re s ta te a d m in is tra tio n in s titu tio n s a n d s o c ie ty h a v e a c c e s s to o ffic ia l tra n s la tio n s o f le g a l a c ts a n d o th e r d o c u m e n ts is s u e d b y s ta te a n d in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s. T h e s e tra n s la tio n s a re a v a ila b le e ith e r o n th e w e b p a g e o f th e S ta te L a n g u a g e C e n tre (a v a ila b le a t h ttp s :// v v c.g o v.lv /in d e x.p h p ? r o u te = p r o d u c t/c a te g o r y & p a th = 6 0 _ 1 0 9 ) o r o n th e w e b p a g e o f L a tv ia n le g a l a c ts ( a v a ila b le a t w w w.lik u m i.lv ). T h o u g h th e s e tr a n s la tio n s a r e p r e p a r e d b y a c o m p e te n t s ta te in s ti- tu tio n , th e y a re n o t a p p ro v e d b y th e le g is la to r. O ffic ia l tra n s la tio n s m a y n o t b e u p d a te d a n d m ig h t n o t u s e a p p ro p ria te le g a l te rm s. 1 5 L i s t o f A b b r e v i a t i o n s E U E u ro p e a n U n io n C o m m e rc ia l L a w, K C L C o m m e rc ia l L a w ( K o m e r c l i k u m s in L a tv ia n ) O J O ffic ia l J o u rn a l o f th e E u ro p e a n U n io n P a rt III B V L K P a rt III o f th e B a ltic L o c a l L a w s C o lle c tio n `C iv il L a w s ' ( B a l t i j a s v i e t ē j o l i k u m u k o p o j u m a I I I d a l¸ a ` C i v i l l i k u m i ' i n L a tv ia n ) P TA L C o n s u m e r R i g h t s P r o t e c t i o n L a w ( P a t ē r ē t a ¯ j u t i e s ¯õ b u a i z s a r d z ¯õ b a s l i k u m s i n L a tv ia n ) S S R S o v ie t S o c ia lis tic R e p u b lic S u p re m e C o u rt S u p re m e C o u rt o f th e R e p u b lic o f L a tv ia (L a tv ija s R e p u b l i k a s A u g s t a¯ k a¯ t i e s a in L a tv ia n ), c o v e rin g a n y d e p a rtm e n t o f th e c o u rt a n d its c u rre n t a lte rn a tiv e title , e.g. th e S e n a te 1 6 P re fa c e T h e p re s e n t m o n o g ra p h o n th e re g u la tio n o f c o n tra c t la w in L a tv ia w a s p re p a re d b y a te a m o f re c o g n iz e d a n d e x p e rie n c e d L a tv ia n s c h o la rs a n d c iv il la w p ra c titio n e rs. T h e a im o f th e m o n o g ra p h is to p ro v id e a n u n d e rs ta n d in g to a n in te rn a tio n a l a u d i- e n c e o f th e re g u la tio n o f c o n tra c t la w in L a tv ia a n d its c o n te n ts in c o n ju n c tio n w ith p ro b le m s id e n ti® e d in b o th L a tv ia n le g a l lite ra tu re a n d L a tv ia n le g a l p ra c tic e a n d le a d in g o p in io n s fo r th e ir s o lu tio n s e x p re s s e d in L a tv ia n le g a l lite ra tu re. T h e c o -a u th o rs o f th is m o n o g ra p h w o u ld lik e to b e lie v e th a t th e m o n o g ra p h w ill b e a v a lu a b le , p ra c tic a l a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e g u id e o n L a tv ia n c o n tra c t la w fo r th o s e w h o a re in te re s te d in b e c o m in g fa m ilia r w ith its c o n c e p ts , in s titu te s a n d c o n te n ts. T h e fa c t th a t L a tv ia is a re la tiv e ly s m a ll c o u n try in th e n o rth e rn p a rt o f E u ro p e d o e s n o t m e a n th a t its c o n tra c tu a l re g u la tio n fa ils to d e m o n s tra te s ig n i® c a n t le g a l p ro b le m s a n d th e ir s o lu tio n s. In a d d itio n , fo re ig n le g a l a n d n a tu ra l p e rs o n s a c tiv e ly p a rtic ip a te in in te rn a tio n a l tra d e b y c o n c lu d in g in te rn a tio n a l (c o m m e rc ia l) c o n tra c ts w ith L a tv ia n le g a l a n d n a tu ra l p e rs o n s. In th e s e s itu a tio n s , L a tv ia n la w m a y b e a p p lic a b le to c o n tra c ts a s d is c u s s e d in th is m o n o g ra p h. L ik e w is e , a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e e v o lu tio n o f L a tv ia n c o n tra c t la w a s d e m o n s tra te d in th is m o n o g ra p h is e s s e n - tia l in o rd e r to c o rre c tly in te rp re t its e x is tin g re g u la tio n. T h e e v o lu tio n o f L a tv ia n c o n tra c t la w is in fl u e n c e d b y d iffe re n t fa c to rs s u c h a s a d o p tio n o f th e c u rre n tly e ffe c tiv e C iv il L a w, its re s to ra tio n in 1 9 9 2 -1 9 9 3 , s u b s e q u e n t a m e n d m e n ts a n d th e re la tio n s h ip w ith s p e c ia l le g a l a c ts g o v e rn in g e ith e r w h o le c o n tra c ts (s u c h a s in s u r- a n c e c o n tra c ts o r s p e c i® c c o n tra c ts in c o n s u m e r p ro te c tio n la w ) o r c o n tra c ts c o n - c lu d e d b y s p e c ia l s u b je c ts (s u c h a s c o n s u m e rs o r m e rc h a n ts ) o r s p e c i® c m a tte rs in a d d itio n to th e re g u la tio n o f c o n tra c ts in c lu d e d in P a rt F o u r o f th e C iv il L a w a s p a rt o f re g u la tio n o f th e la w o f o b lig a tio n s (s u c h a s c a rria g e c o n tra c ts , w h ic h a re re g u - la te d b y s p e c i® c le g a l a c ts ). A ll th e s e a s p e c ts w e re c o n s id e re d d u rin g th e p re p a ra - tio n o f th is m o n o g ra p h. T h is m o n o g ra p h is th e ® rs t p u b lic a tio n in E n g lis h o n L a tv ia n c o n tra c t la w to re fl e c t its g e n e ra l a n d s p e c i® c is s u e s in a c o m p re h e n s iv e a n d s y s te m a tic m a n n e r. P re v io u s ly , s e v e ra l s c ie n ti® c p u b lic a tio n s w e re p u b lis h e d in E n g lis h b y L a tv ia n le g a l s c h o la rs d e a lin g w ith s p e c i® c is s u e s o f L a tv ia n c o n tra c t la w s u c h a s c o m p a ri- s o n o f c o n tr a c t la w w ith th e c iv il a n d c o m m o n la w s y s te m s ,6 th e c o n c e p t o f f a u lt,7 6. T o rg a n s , K. & B u s h a w, A. `S o m e C o m p a ra tiv e A s p e c ts o f C o n tra c t L a w in C iv il a n d C o m m o n L a w S y s te m s '. In te r n a tio n a l L e g a l P e r s p e c tiv e s 1 2 (2 0 0 1 ), p p. 3 7 -7 2. 7. T o r g a¯ n s , K. T h e C o n c e p t o f F a u l t i n L a t v i a n C o n t r a c t L a w R e q u i r e s A d j u s t m e n t : H u m a n i t i e s a n d S o c ia l S c ie n c e s L a tv ia. U n iv e rs ity o f L a tv ia , N o. 3 (2 0 0 3 ). 1 7
