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Understanding Psychology & Culture PS2102 Dr Diana Pinto [email protected] Exam is in Jan 2024 1 Importance of a cultural perspective in Psychology It is only in recent decades that psychology as an academic discipline has begun to recognise the importance of a cultural perspective. From cros...
Understanding Psychology & Culture PS2102 Dr Diana Pinto [email protected] Exam is in Jan 2024 1 Importance of a cultural perspective in Psychology It is only in recent decades that psychology as an academic discipline has begun to recognise the importance of a cultural perspective. From cross-cultural psychology through to psychological anthropology, psychologists have taken a number of approaches to studying the development and role of culture in human behaviour. This topic is designed to facilitate your understanding and application of major concepts and principles of culture and how it drives psychology. ILO 1. An appreciation of the complexities of defining culture 2. Be able to compare and contrast various models of culture 3. An appreciation of tangible and non tangible elements that denote culture. 4. The various functions and needs of belonging to a specific culture. What Is Culture? Complex concept- lack of consensus about the meaning Traditionally, culture has been thought of as national identity However, the scope has broadened to include many aspects of social difference, including but not limited to: race, ethnicity, gender, social class, religion, and sexuality. Even though much of culture in terms of national identity is tangible and visual (e.g., food, clothing, housing, rituals, etc.), Some aspects of culture may not necessarily be ‘seen’ (non-tangible)– socioeconomic status, religion, gender and sexual orientation. Sex: Biological Attribute: Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that distinguish male and female bodies. These include reproductive organs, chromosomes, and secondary sex characteristics like facial hair and breast development. Binary Concept: Traditionally, sex has been understood as a binary concept, with individuals classified as either male or female. This classification is typically assigned at birth based on observable physical traits. Gender: Social and Cultural Roles: Gender, on the other hand, refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, expectations, and societal norms that a given culture considers appropriate for men and women. It is a social and cultural construct that varies across different societies and can change over time. Identity: Gender identity is a deeply-felt sense of being male, female, or another gender. Unlike sex, which is assigned at birth, gender identity is a personal and internal sense of one’s own gender. Some people may identify with the gender assigned to them at birth (cisgender), while others may not (transgender). In summary, sex is often associated with biological attributes, while gender encompasses the social and cultural roles and personal identity associated with being male or female. It’s important to note that not everyone fits neatly into the traditional binary understanding of sex and gender, and there is a spectrum of diversity in both biological and gender identities. 4 Different Emphasis of culture SOCIAL DIFFERENCES BELIEFS/ BEHAVIOURS Beyond race and ethnicity, we all are part of and influenced by multiple cultures. Each of us is a multicultural individual with many sets of cultures in different contexts that may or may not coincide we are all ‘culturally different’ given different family backgrounds, religions, occupations, disability, gender, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, etc. (Berry, Poortinga, Breugelmans, Chasiotis, & Sam, 2011) Race: Biological Attributes: Traditionally, race has been used to categorize people based on perceived physical or biological attributes such as skin color, facial features, and hair texture. However, these physical traits are not reliable indicators of genetic variation. Social Construct: Race is considered a social construct because the categories are not based on inherent biological differences but are socially and culturally defined. Different societies may have different criteria for classifying people into racial categories. Ethnicity: Cultural Identity: Ethnicity is more closely associated with cultural expression and identity. It involves shared cultural traits, such as language, religion, ancestry, and traditions. People who identify with the same ethnicity often share a sense of common history and cultural heritage. Subjective Connection: Ethnicity is often self-identified, and individuals may choose to embrace or reject an ethnic identity based on their personal experiences and connections to a particular cultural group. In summary, while race has historically been linked to perceived physical characteristics, ethnicity is more closely tied to cultural attributes and identity. Both race and ethnicity are social constructs that can vary across different societies and may not have a basis in biological differences. It’s important to recognize the diversity within these categories and understand that they are complex and fluid concepts. 5 Berry’s Aspect of Culture Culture is complex and multifaceted, pervasive and embedded in many aspects of life and living. 1. Descriptive emphasises the different activities and behaviours of a culture. 2. Historical aspects refer to the heritage and traditions associated with a particular cultural group. 3. Normative signifies the rules and norms of a culture. 4. Psychological refers to the behavioural aspects of culture like learning and problem solving. 5. Structural depicts the social and organizational aspects of culture. 6. Genetic describes the origins of a culture. Nine Characteristics of Culture (Moran, Abramson, & Moran, 2014) Putting it all together Culture gives people a sense of who they are, of belonging, of how they should behave, and of what they should be doing. Culture impacts behaviour, morale, and productivity at work and includes values and patterns that influence our attitudes and actions. Culture is dynamic. ‘one size does not fit all’ Based on culture, people structure their worlds and determine their social interactions. We all have diverse ways of understanding the world and defining our cultural identities. Subcultures (groups within dominant cultures with which people identify; co-culture (similar to subculture but conveys the idea that no one cultural group is superior to other co-existing cultures) 8 History and Foundations of Culture and Psychology Nineteenth century German Völkerpsychologie (or folk psychology) is largely responsible for European conception of culture and national identity (Kalmar, 1987). Argued that human behaviour is due primarily to cultural differences developed through social learning versus biological traits and that no one culture is more advanced or better than another. Boas (1966) asserted that the goal of research is ‘to discover among all the varieties of human behavior those that are common to all humanity’ By studying ‘foreign cultures’ we will ‘see how many of our behaviors that we believe to be founded deep in human nature (innate) are actually expressions of our culture’ 9 Four functions of culture Need for collective support to survive and reproduce all fostered by norms, beliefs & practices ‘symbolic immortality’ naming a baby so that your name lives on, religious beliefs in life after death, validate our perceptions of the world around us. Shared beliefs, expectations, and rules that come from culture help fulfil this need. people mutually influence one another toward shared beliefs, behaviours, and norms within a population which results in culture (Hong, Gelfand, & Chiu, 2018) relation to psychology, culture serves four functions: evolutionary, buffer, epistemic, and resulting from interpersonal interactions. From an evolutionary perspective, culture makes sense because of our need for collective support in order to survive and reproduce and because culture provides an adaptive function via cultural norms, beliefs, and practices all of which contribute to efficient organization of societal groups. Another perspective on the function of culture is from terror management theory. According to this theory, culture serves as a protective factor/buffer against existential anxiety about our own mortality. Culture offers mechanisms of ‘symbolic immortality’ such as naming a baby after oneself so that the name lives on, religious beliefs in life after death, and feelings of being a valuable member of and contributor to culture. Culture may serve an epistemic need to validate our perceptions of the world around us. Shared beliefs, expectations, and rules that come from culture help fulfil this need. Another perspective on the emergence of culture is that it is an ‘unintended byproduct’ of interpersonal interaction. Through interaction that involves interpersonal communication, people mutually influence one another toward shared beliefs, behaviours, and norms within a population which results in culture (Hong, Gelfand, & Chiu, 2018) 10 Overview of Terminology Terminology relating to race is rapidly evolving No universally supported term for referring to minority ethnic communities We endeavour to accelerate our efforts in moving beyond language to undertake action to address racial inequalities. Race: complications Race : a distinction of a group of people either based on self-identification or based on similar, heritable physical characteristics (e.g., skin colour, facial features, hair texture, etc.) although many argue that race is really more of a social construct as a result of arbitrary assignment to social categories (Banks, 2015). For example, Black is considered a racial category that encompasses people of African origin. Racial categories vary across cultures and are not defined solely by skin colour. For instance, Brazil’s long history of intermarriage among diverse groups has resulted in numerous words for skin colours including a census category parda to denote mixed ancestry (Jandt, 2018). In addition, in the Dominican Republic and other countries, Black people may consider themselves white if they are part of a wealthier economic class. 12 Ethnicity Race and ethnicity are often used interchangeably, largely due to the use of the term race in law and policy and the use of ethnicity to identify individuals’ identities- bone structure, skin, hair or eye colour Ethnicity refers to grouping people based on several factors including shared cultural factors, nationality, regional culture, ancestry, language and geographical region. The UoL recognises that classifying groups and individuals by ‘race’ can exacerbate racism and related inequalities. Wherever possible, the University will seek to identify individuals and groups by their ethnic background The term ‘race’ will only be used when referring to our commitment and action to overcome race-based inequalities Terms we support: BAME and BME BAME is an acronym for Black, Asian and minority ethnic- is widely used in reporting and using data across many sectors including government, education and media. Within the Higher Education sector it is also used for statutory returns and national charters such as the Higher Education Statistics Agency and the Race Equality Charter Mark. When using the term BAME, the University refers to all ethnic groups other than white . BME stands for Black minority ethnic. Both have their limitations Limitations of BME/BAME Imply that BME/BAME individuals are a homogeneous group BME/BAME was not proposed and is not universally accepted by those who are assumed to fall within it. It others those who do not identify as white and re-enforces white as the norm. Many individuals from minority ethnic groups do not identify themselves as BAME Both BME and BAME single out specific ethnic groups, this can be divisive and exclusionary. They can be perceived as convenient labels that are placed on minority ethnic groups of people, rather than identities with which people have chosen to identify. They ignore the fact that Black, Asian and other visible minority ethnic groups in the UK are actually part of a global majority of non-white people Tend to be perceived as referring to non-white people, which does not consider white minority ethnic groups. Terms we support Black- refers to those who identify as being from an African, Caribbean or other Black background. The term Black will be capitalised in recognition of the continued structural and societal racism experienced by Black communities. Note- wherever possible, refer to specific ethnic groups when talking about race Arbitrary assignment Money, education and power, for example, ‘whiten’ an individual, so that the colour attributed to a higher class individual is often lighter than the colour that would be attributed to an individual of the same phenotype of a lower class. (as cited in Bailey, 2001, p. 677) US immigrants from India who were initially classified as Hindu for their racial category on the US Census and then changed to Caucasian*, to non-White, to White** and finally to Asian Indian (Jandt, 2018). *People of North African and southwest Asian ancestry were historically considered to be of the Caucasian race. ** watch the video on Aryan migration The classification of immigrants from India in the United States under different racial categories on the U.S. Census reflects historical shifts in the understanding of race and ethnicity in the country. The changes in categorization were influenced by social, political, and legal factors Initial Classification as Hindu: In earlier years, racial and ethnic categories on the U.S. Census were often simplified and based on broad generalizations. People from India were sometimes categorized as “Hindu” due to a misunderstanding that Hinduism was the predominant religion in India. This classification was not an accurate representation of the diversity of religious beliefs among Indian immigrants. Caucasian Classification: In the early 20th century, some Indian immigrants were classified as “Caucasian” on the U.S. Census. This classification was influenced by the idea that people of European descent, including those from the Indian subcontinent, belonged to the “Caucasian race.” However, this classification did not necessarily imply social acceptance or inclusion. Shift to Non-White: As racial and ethnic categories evolved, there was a shift in the mid-20th century towards recognizing a broader range of racial identities. The term “non-White” was introduced to encompass individuals who did not fit the conventional definition of “White” or “Caucasian.” Inclusion in the Asian Indian Category: In more recent decades, the U.S. Census has recognized the need for more accurate and specific categorizations. Indian immigrants, along with people from other South Asian countries, were eventually classified under the category of “Asian Indian” or “Asian” on the census, reflecting both their geographic and cultural origins. These changes highlight the complex and evolving nature of racial and ethnic classifications in the United States. They also underscore the importance of accurate and inclusive categorizations for demographic and policy purposes. It’s worth noting that the classification systems used by the U.S. Census are social constructs, and changes in categorization can have significant implications for how communities are perceived and treated in various societal contexts. 17 Gender Historically, gender refers to the norms and expectations that are culturally defined for men and women. Feminists argue that gender identity is more significant for women than any other aspect of identity, there does not seem to be one unifying gender identity among women (Cannadine, 2014). In fact, gender scholars have called for a ‘degendering of society’ given the prevalence of people living outside the gender binary (i.e., transgender, transsexual) (Messerschmidt, Messner, Connell, & Martin, 2018). Scholars argue that gender is not a universal construct and should be considered ‘intersectional’ and fluid with other categorical distinctions of sexuality, race/ethnicity, nationality, etc. (Messerschmidt et al., 2018).
