L-1_merged.pdf

Grading Policy Mid = 30 marks Final = 40 marks Sessional = 30 marks (Quiz, Lab task, Presentations, Class participation etc.)  Data vs. Information Data – Raw, unorganized facts – Can be in the form of text, graphics, audio, or video Information – Data that has bee...

Grading Policy Mid = 30 marks Final = 40 marks Sessional = 30 marks (Quiz, Lab task, Presentations, Class participation etc.)  Data vs. Information Data – Raw, unorganized facts – Can be in the form of text, graphics, audio, or video Information – Data that has been processed into a meaningful form Information Processing – Converting data into information 2  Hardware Hardware: The physical parts of a computer – Internal hardware Located inside the main box (system unit) of the computer – External hardware Located outside the system unit Connect to the computer via a wired or wireless connection – Hardware devices are associated with all five computer operations 3  Hardware Input Devices – Used to input data into the computer – Keyboards, mice, scanners, cameras, microphones, touch pads, touch screens, fingerprint readers, etc. Processing Devices – Perform calculations and control computer’s operation – Central processing unit (CPU) and memory Output Devices – Present results to the user – Monitors, printers, speakers, projectors, etc. 4  Hardware Storage Devices – Used to store data on or access data from storage media – Hard drives, CD/DVD discs and drives, USB flash drives, etc. Communications Devices – Allow users to communicate with others and to electronically access remote information – Modems, network adapters (NIC), routers, etc. 5 Hardware 6  Software Software – The programs or instructions used to tell the computer hardware what to do System Software – Operating system starts up the computer and controls its operation – Without OS, computer cannot function – Boots the computer and launches programs at the user’s direction – Most use a GUI to interact with the user via icons, buttons, tiles, etc. – Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Android, etc. 7  Software Windows 8 interface – Start button, Start screen, tiles, charms, etc. 8  Software Windows 10 interface – Windows 11 is the latest major release of Microsoft's Windows NT operating system, released on October 5, 2021.  Application Software Application Software – Performs specific tasks or applications Creating letters, budgets, etc. Managing inventory and customer databases Editing photographs Scheduling appointments Viewing Web pages Exchanging e-mail Burning DVDs Designing homes Playing games 10  Application Software Examples of application software – Word processing programs – Multimedia programs – Web browsers – E-mail programs 11  What Is a Computer and What Does It Do? Computer – A programmable, electronic device that accepts data, performs operations on that data, and stores the data – Follows instructions, called programs, which determine the tasks the computer will perform Basic Operations – Input: Entering data into the computer – Processing: Performing operations on the data – Output: Presenting the results – Storage: Saving data, programs, or output for future use – Communications: Sending or receiving data 12 What Is a Computer and What Does It Do? 13  Computer Users and Professionals Computer Users (end users) – People who use a computer to obtain information Computer professionals include: – Programmers Write programs computers use – Systems analysts Design computer systems – Computer operations personnel Manage day-to-day computer operations – Security specialists Secure computers and networks against hackers 14  Computers To Fit Every Need Six basic categories of computers: – Embedded computers – Mobile devices – Personal computers – Servers – Mainframe computers – Supercomputers 15  Embedded Computers Embedded Computers – Embedded into a product and designed to perform specific tasks or functions for that product – Cannot be used as general-purpose computers – Often embedded into: Household appliances Thermostats Sewing machines Treadmills Vending machines Industrial machines Automobiles Medical devices 16  Mobile Devices Mobile Device – A very small device with some type of built-in computing or Internet capability – Typically has a small screen and keyboard – Examples: Smartphones Handheld gaming devices Portable digital media players Media tablets 17  Personal Computers (PCs) Personal Computer (PC) – Small computer designed to be used by one person at a time – Also called a microcomputer – Available in different sizes and shapes Desktop Computers – On or next to a desk – Tower case, desktop case, or all-in-one – PC or Macintosh(Apple) – Not portable 18  Portable Computers Portable Computers – Designed to be carried around easily – Fully functional computers – Notebook (laptop) computers Typically use a clamshell design – Tablet computers Usually use a digital pen/stylus or touch screen No physical keyboard; can use on-screen or attached keyboard – Hybrid notebook-tablet computers – Netbooks Smaller and have more limited features than conventional notebooks 19 Portable Computers 20  Thin Client and Internet Appliances Thin Client – Designed to utilize a network for much of its processing – Lower cost, increased security and easier maintenance – Limited or no local storage – Not able to function as a computer if network is down Internet Appliance – Specialized network computer designed for Internet access – Some use apps to deliver news, sports scores, weather, music, and other Web-based information 21  Inside the Industry Box Tech Clothing – Allows you to carry multiple devices safely – Can use devices while they are being worn – Make airport checkpoints easier 22  Servers Server – A medium-sized computer used to host programs and data for a small network – Sometimes referred to as a minicomputer – Users connect via a network with a computer, thin client, or dumb terminal – Virtualization Creating virtual rather than actual environments (often used to share a server for increased efficiency) 23  Mainframe Computers Mainframe Computer – Powerful computer used by many large organizations to manage large amounts of centralized data, where many people frequently need to use the same data. – Standard choice for hospitals, universities, large businesses, banks, government offices – Located in climate-controlled data centers and connected to the rest of the company computers via a network – Larger, more expensive, and more powerful than servers – Usually operate 24 hours a day – Also called high-end servers or enterprise-class servers 24 Mainframe Computers 25  Supercomputers Supercomputer – Fastest, most expensive, most powerful type of computer – can perform more than one trillion calculations per second. – can house thousands of processors. – Generally run one program at a time, as fast as possible – Can cost several million dollars each – Tend to be very large and contain a large number of CPUs – Frontier – As of June 2024, the number one supercomputer is Frontier 26 Supercomputers 27  Computer Networks and the Internet Computer Network – A collection of hardware and other devices that are connected together – Users can share hardware, software, and data – Users can communicate with each other Network Servers – Manage resources on a network 28  Computer Networks and the Internet Computer networks exist in many sizes and types – Home networks – School and small office networks – Large corporate – Public wireless networks – Mobile telephone networks 29 Computer Networks and the Internet 30  What Are the Internet and the World Internet Wide Web? – The largest/most well-known computer network in the world – Individuals connect using an Internet service provider (ISP) World Wide Web – One resource (a vast collection of Web pages) available through the Internet – Web sites contain Web pages stored on Web servers – Viewed using a Web browser (Microsoft edge, Chrome, Safari, Firefox, Opera, etc.) – Offers a wide variety of information 31 What Are the Internet and the World Wide Web? 32  Accessing a Network or the Internet Need a modem or network adapter to connect Some networks require a username and password Internet addresses are used to access resources on the Internet – IP (Internet Protocol) address Numeric address that identifies computers (207.46.197.32) 33  IP Addresses and Domain Names IP Addresses – Are numeric and unique Domain Names – Correspond to IP addresses – Top-level domains (TLDs) – Identifies type of organization or its location 34  Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) – Uniquely identifies a Web page, including Protocol or standard being used Web server hosting the page Names of folders in which the Web page file is stored Web page’s filename 35  Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) Protocols: – Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http://) is typically used to display Web pages (https:// is used for secure Web pages) – File Transfer Protocol (ftp://) is often used for file exchange 36  E-mail Addresses E-mail addresses consist of: – Username An identifying name – The @ symbol – Domain name for the computer that will be handling the person’s e-mail (mail server) Pronouncing Internet addresses 37  Surfing the Web Web browser – Used to display Web pages Browser starting page or home page – The first page displayed when the browser is opened To navigate to a Web page, you can: – Type a URL in the Address bar – Click a hyperlink – graphics or text linked to other Web pages – Select a Favorite/Bookmark or page from the History list 38  Searching the Web Search site: – Helps you locate what you are looking for – Typically search using keywords Reference sites – Look up addresses, telephone numbers, ZIP codes, maps, etc. 39  E-Mail Electronic mail (e-mail) – Electronic messages exchanged between computers on a network One of the most widely used Internet applications Microsoft Outlook Gmail Mac OS X Mail Outlook.com 40  E-Mail Can contain photos, attached files, etc. Mobile e-mail may require a fee Other types of mobile communications – Short Message Service (SMS) – Multimedia Message Service (MMS) 41 E-Mail 42  Computers and Society The vast improvements in technology over the past decade have had a distinct impact on daily life, at home and at work Many benefits of a computer-oriented society – Ability to design products before construction leads to safer products – Earlier medical diagnoses and more effective treatment – Devices that allow physically and/or visually challenged individuals to perform job tasks – Documents e-mailed or faxed in moments – Download information, music, programs, movies, and more on demand 43  Computers and Society Computer-oriented society also has risks – Stress and health concerns – Spam – Computer viruses and malware – Identity theft and phishing – Privacy issues How data is collected How secure is the collected data 44  Computers and Society Differences in online communications – Less formal than traditional – Netiquette Be polite and considerate of others Refrain from offensive remarks – Abbreviations (acronyms) and emoticons Acronyms, such as BTW (by the way) Illustrations of faces, such as  45 Computers and Society 46  Computers and Society The Anonymity Factor – Gives many individuals a sense of freedom – Can also be abused Information Integrity – Use common sense when evaluating online content – Check your source--not all information on the Internet is accurate 47  Data and Program Representation Digital Data Representation – Coding Systems Used to represent data and programs in a manner understood by the computer – Digital Computers Can only understand two states, off and on (0 and 1) – Digital Data Representation The process of representing data in digital form so it can be understood by a computer 1 Digital Data Representation – Bit The smallest unit of data that a binary computer can recognize (a single 1 or 0) – Byte = 8 bits Byte terminology used to express the size of documents and other files, programs, etc. – Prefixes are often used to express larger quantities of bytes: kilobyte (KB), megabyte (MB), gigabyte (GB), terabyte (TB), petabyte (PB), exabyte (EB), zettabyte (ZB), yottabyte (YB). 2  Representing Numerical Data The Binary Numbering System – Numbering system A way of representing numbers – Decimal numbering system Uses 10 symbols (0-9) – Binary numbering system Uses only two symbols (1 and 0) to represent all possible numbers – In both systems, the position of the digits determines the power to which the base number (such as 10 or 2) is raised 3 Representing Numerical Data 4  Coding Systems for Text-Based Data ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) – Coding system traditionally used with personal computers – 7bit = 27 = 128 unique values EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code) – Developed by IBM, primarily for mainframes 5  ASCII  Example  Coding Systems for Text-Based Data Unicode – Newer code (32 bits per character is common) – Universal coding standard designed to represent text- based data written in any ancient or modern language – Replacing ASCII as the primary text-coding system 8  Unicode Commonly used UNICODE encodings are (Unicode Transformation Format) UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32.  Coding Systems for Other Types of Data Graphics Data (still images such as photos or drawings) – Bitmapped images Image made of up of a grid of small dots called pixels Monochrome graphic can only be one of two colors – Requires just one bit for color storage Images with more than two colors – Can use 4, 8, or 24 bits to store the color data for each pixel – More bits = more colors Each color for every pixel is represented by 8 bits––for example dark green is represented as 01010010 (red), 10011010 (green), and 01100110 (blue). The collection of individual pixels and their color values create images. That's it! How images are represented in binary! 10 Coding Systems for Other Types of Data 11  Coding Systems for Other Types of Data Audio Data – Must be in digital form in order to be stored on or processed by a computer – Often compressed when sent over the Internet MP3 files are 10 times smaller than their uncompressed digital versions Download more quickly and take up less storage space Video Data – Displayed using a collection of frames, each frame contains a still image – Amount of data can be substantial, but can be compressed Computers use binary to represent all data. Text, images, videos, and even music are encoded as sequences of 0s and 1s. 12  Representing Software Programs Machine language – Binary-based language for representing computer programs the computer can execute directly – Early programs were written in machine language – Today’s programs still need to be translated into machine language in order to be understood by the computer 13  Number System  Number System  Decimal System  Binary System  Decimal Number Quantity Positional Number (3 X 103 + 5 X 102 + 0 X 101 + 1 X 100 = 3501)  Binary to Decimal Conversion Binary Number − 111012 Calculate Decimal Equivalent −  Octal to Decimal Convert 228 to decimal number.  Hexadecimal to Decimal Convert 12116 to decimal number.  Inside the System Unit System Unit – The main case of a computer – Houses the processing hardware for a computer – Also contains storage devices, the power supply, and cooling fans – Houses processor, memory, interfaces to connect to peripheral devices (printers, etc), and other components – With a desktop computer, usually looks like a rectangular box 22 Inside the System Unit 23  Inside the System Unit The Motherboard – Computer Chip Very small pieces of silicon or other semi-conducting material onto which integrated circuits are embedded – Circuit Board A thin board containing computer chips and other electronic components – System Board The main circuit board inside the system unit to which all devices must connect 24  Inside the System Unit External devices (monitors, keyboards, mice, printers) Wireless devices (e.g., Bluetooth) Power Supply – Connects to the motherboard to deliver electricity (personal computer) – Portable computers use rechargeable battery pack Nonremovable batteries more difficult and expensive to replace 25  Inside the System Unit Drive Bays – Rectangular metal racks inside the system unit that house storage devices Hard drive, CD/DVD drive, flash memory card reader Connected to the motherboard with a cable Processors – The CPU (Central Processing Unit) Circuitry and components packaged together and connected directly to the motherboard Does the vast majority of processing for a computer Also called a processor; called a microprocessor when talking about personal computers 26 Inside the System Unit – Dual-core CPU Contains the processing components (cores) of two separate processors on a single CPU – Quad-core CPU Contains four cores – Multi-core processors allow computers to work on more than one task at a time – Typically different CPUs for desktop computers, portable computers, servers, mobile devices, consumer devices, etc. Personal computer CPU often made by Intel or AMD Media tablets and mobile phones use processors made by other companies such as ARM 27  Dual & Quad Core Inside the System Unit 29 Inside the System Unit – The GPU (graphics processing unit) Takes care of the processing needed to display images (including still images, animations) on the screen Can be located on the motherboard, on a video graphics board, on in the CPU package 30  How It Works Box GPUs and Transformers: The Ride 3D at Universal Studios – Uses a 2,000 foot-long track, 14 huge screens, and 34 projectors – Motion is synchronized with the action – Images are 3D, 4K – Used GPUs to see 3D animations in real time as they were being developed 31  CPU Vs GPU A CPU is the main processor in a computer that handles general-purpose computing tasks, such as executing instructions, managing system resources, and running applications. CPUs are designed to be versatile and handle a wide variety of workloads efficiently. GPU: On the other hand, a GPU is a specialized processor primarily used for accelerating graphics-intensive tasks, such as rendering 3D graphics, video processing, and machine learning. GPUs are designed with a large number of smaller, more efficient cores that can handle many tasks in parallel, making them well-suited for tasks that can be highly parallelized, like graphics processing.  CPU Vs GPU  Inside the System Unit Processing Speed – CPU clock speed is one measurement of processing speed – Rated in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz) – Higher CPU clock speed = more instructions processed per second – Alternate measure of processing speed is the number of instructions a CPU can process per second Megaflops (millions), gigaflops (billions), teraflops (trillions) – Benchmark tests can be used to evaluate overall processing speed 34  Inside the System Unit Word Size – The amount of data that a CPU can manipulate at one time – Modern desktop computers have 64-bit words – Computers embedded in appliances and consumer products have word sizes of 8, 16 or 32 bits Cache Memory – Special group of very fast memory chips located on or close to the CPU – Level 1 is fastest, then Level 2, then Level 3 – More cache memory typically means faster processing – Usually internal cache (built into the CPU) – cache memory is used to speed up access to data and applications. By storing frequently used data in cache, the CPU can access this data much faster than if it had to retrieve it from the main memory or the hard drive. 35  Inside the System Unit Bus Width, Bus Speed, and Bandwidth – A bus is an electronic path over which data can travel – Found inside the CPU and on the motherboard – Bus width is the number of wires in the bus over which data can travel A wider bus allows more data to be transferred at one time 36  Inside the System Unit Bus width and speed determine the throughput or bandwidth of the bus – The amount of data that can be transferred by the bus in a given time period 37  Memory Memory – Refers to chip-based storage located inside the system unit – Storage refers to the amount of long-term storage available to a computer – Random Access Memory (RAM) Computer’s main memory Consists of chips arranged on a circuit board called a memory module which are plugged into the motherboard Stores essential parts of operating system, programs, and data the computer is currently using 38  Memory Memory 40 Memory Volatile – RAM content lost when the computer is shut off Non-Volatile – ROM and flash memory are non-volatile Measured in bytes – Amount installed depends on the CPU and operating system being used Most personal computers use SD-RAM 41 Memory Each location in memory has an address – Each location typically holds one byte – Computer system sets up and maintains directory tables to facilitate retrieval of the data 42 Memory – Registers High-speed memory built into the CPU Used to store data and intermediary results during processing Fastest type of memory (Cache stores frequently accessed data of a computer. Registers store the data that the CPU is currently processing.) – ROM (read-only memory) Non-volatile chips located on the motherboard into which data or programs have been permanently stored Retrieved by the computer when needed Being replaced with flash memory 43 Memory – Flash Memory Nonvolatile memory chips that can be used for storage Have begun to replace ROM for storing system information Now stores firmware for personal computers and other devices Built into many types of devices (media tablets, mobile phones, and digital cameras) for user storage 44  Cooling Components Fans – Fans used on most personal computers to help cool the CPU and system unit – Heat is an ongoing problem for CPU and computer manufacturers Can damage components Cooler chips run faster Heat Sinks – Small components typically made out of aluminum with fins that help to dissipate heat 45  Cooling Components Cooling Systems – Liquid cooling systems Cool the computer with liquid-filled tubes – Immersion cooling Hardware is actually submerged into units filled with a liquid cooling solution – Notebook cooling stand Cools the underside of a notebook computer – Other cooling methods, such as ion pump cooling systems, are under development 46 Cooling Components 47  Expansion Expansion Slots, Expansion Cards, and ExpressCard Modules – Expansion Slot A location on the motherboard into which expansion cards are inserted – Expansion Card A circuit board inserted into an expansion slot Used to add additional functionality or to attach a peripheral device – ExpressCard Modules Designed to add additional functionality to notebooks 48 Expansion 49 Expansion  Buses Bus – An electronic path within a computer over which data travels Located within the CPU and etched onto the motherboard – Expansion Bus Connects the CPU to peripheral (typically input and output) devices – Memory Bus Connects CPU directly to RAM – Frontside Bus (FSB) Connects CPU to the chipset that connects the CPU to the rest of the bus architecture 51  Computer Bus Buses – PCI and PCI Express (PCIe) Bus PCI has been one of the most common types Today, PCI Express bus, which is extremely fast, has replaced the PCI bus – Universal Serial Bus (USB) Extremely versatile Allows 127 different devices to connect to a computer via a single USB port – FireWire Bus Developed by Apple to connect multimedia devices to a computer 53  Ports and Connectors Port – A connector on the exterior of a computer’s system unit to which a device may be attached – Typical desktop computer ports include: Power connector, Firewire, VGA monitor, Network, USB, Audio, and HDMI – Others include IrDA and Bluetooth ports, eSATA ports, Thunderbolt ports (Apple devices) – Most computers support the Plug and Play standard 54 Ports and Connectors 55 Ports and Connectors – Portable computers have ports similar to desktop computers, but often not as many – Smartphones and mobile devices have more limited expansion capabilities Usually have a USB port, HDMI port, and/or flash memory card slot Flash memory cards often use the Secure Digital (SD) format MiniSD and microSD cars are smaller than regular SD cards 56 Ports and Connectors 57 How the CPU Works CPU (Central Processing Unit) – Consists of a variety of circuitry and components packaged together – Transistor: Key element of the microprocessor Made of semi-conductor material that acts like a switch controlling the flow of electrons inside a chip – Today’s CPUs contain hundreds of millions of transistors; the number doubles about every 18 months (Moore’s Law) 58  How the CPU Works Typical CPU Components – Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) Performs arithmetic involving integers and logical operations – Floating Point Unit (FPU) Performs decimal arithmetic – Control Unit Coordinates and controls activities within a CPU core – Prefetch Unit Attempts to retrieve data and instructions before they are needed for processing in order to avoid delays 59 How the CPU Works – Decode Unit Translates instructions from the prefetch unit so they are understood by the control unit, ALU, and FPU – Registers and Internal Cache Memory Store data and instructions needed by the CPU – Bus Interface Unit Allows the core to communicate with other CPU components 60 How the CPU Works 61  The System Clock and the Machine Cycle System Clock – Small quartz crystal on the motherboard – Timing mechanism within the computer system that synchronizes the computer’s operations Sends out a signal on a regular basis to all computer components Each signal is a cycle Number of cycles per second is measured in hertz (Hz) One megahertz = one million ticks of the system clock 62 The System Clock and the Machine Cycle Many PC system clocks run at 200 MHz Computers can run at a multiple or fraction of the system clock speed A CPU clock speed of 2 GHz means the CPU clock “ticks” 10 times during each system clock tick During each CPU clock tick, one or more pieces of microcode are processed A CPU with a higher clock speed processes more instructions per second than the same CPU with a lower CPU clock speed 63  The System Clock and the Machine Cycle Machine Cycle – The series of operations involved in the execution of a single machine level instruction 64 l  ·-..,._ _,..._  What Is a Network? Network - A connected system of objects or people Computer network - A collection of computers and other hardware devices connected together so users can share hardware, software, and data, and electronically communicate Computer networks are converging with telephone and other communications networks Networks range from small private networks to the Internet In most businesses, computer networks are essential 1  Networking Applications The Internet - Largest computer network in the world Telephone Service - POTS Network One of the first networks Still used today to provide telephone service to landline phones - Mobile Phones (wireless phones) Use a wireless network for communications 2 Networking Applications Cellular (cell) Phones - Must be within range of cell tower to function Dual-mode Phones -A l l o w users to make telephone calls using more than one communications network - Cellular/Wi-Fi dual-mode phones can switch seamlessly between the Wi-Fi network and a cellular network Satellite Phones - Communicate via satellite technology - Most often used by individuals such as soldiers, journalists, wilderness guides, and researchers 3 Networking Applications FIGURE 7·2 Types of mobile phones. CELLULARPHONES SATELLITEPHONES Can be used wherever cellularphone canbe usedvirtually anywhere. coveraoeis available. 4  Networking Applications Television and Radio Broadcasting - Still used to deliver TV and radio content to the public - Other networks involved w i th television content delivery are cable TV networks, satellite TV networks, and private closed-circuit television systems Global Positioning System (GPS) Applications - Uses satellites and a receiver to determine the exact geographic location of the receiver - GPS receivers Commonly used by individuals to determine their geographic location 5  Networking Applications GPS receivers Used on the job by surveyors, farmers, and fishermen Used to guide vehicles and equipment Used by the military to guide munitions and trucks, and to track military aircraft, ships, and submarines FIGURE 7-3 GPS receivers. determme thrnr exact geographical locar,on, usually fo, safety 0< n vigai,onal purposes. HANOHELO GPSRECEIVERS CAR-MOUNTEDGPSRECEIVERS GPSRECEIVERS INTEGRATED INTOSMARTPHONES 6 Networking Applications Monitoring Systems - Use networking technology to determine the current location or status of an object RFID-based Systems - Monitor the status of objects GPS-based Monitoring Systems - Monitor the physical location of objects - Vehicle and child monitoring systems Electronic Medical Monitors - Home healthcare 7 Networking Applications Sensors are used in some monitoring systems - Sensor networks - Home automation (smart thermostats, etc.)..,...,. FIGURE7-5 Smart themostats. Th,s1hennosta1 (left) eo contains a variety of sensors and can be controlled remotely via a mobile app(right). 8  Networking Applications Multimedia Networking - Distributing digital multimedia content, typically via a home network - Necessary networking capabilities are often built into devices being used - Might need to use multimedia networking device such as a digital media receiver or digital media streamer - Placeshifting Content Allows individuals to view multimedia content at a more convenient location, i.e., Slingbox 9  Networking Applications Videoconferencing, Collaborative Computing, and Telecommuting - Videoconferencing Use of computers, video cameras, microphones, and networking technologies to conduct face-to-face meetings over a network - Telepresence Videoconferencing A setup that more closely mimics a real-time meeting environment 10 Networking Applications - Collaborative Computing (workgroup computing) Enables individuals to work together on documents and projects - Telecommuting Individuals work from a remote location (usually home) and communicate with their places of business and clients using networking technologies Allows for employee flexibility 11  Networking Applications Telemedicine - Use of networking technology to provide medical information and services - Remote monitoring and consultations - Remote diagnosis - Telesurgery Robot assisted surgery where doctor's physical location is different from the patient's and robot's Will be needed for long-term space exploration 12 Networking Applications FIGURE 7·8 E..amples of J! J! ,! telem&d1cme i 1 apphcahons. $ i.. i u I REMOTECONSULTATIONS Usingremote-oon!Jolledlelecooferencingrobots,physicians oan"virtually'