Migration and Urbanization in Developing Countries PDF

Malaysia reaping inequality, corruption and racial envy from race-based policies: Malaysia's affirmative action policies in the past 40 years have created a culture of dependency, corruption and racial envy, a prominent Malaysian economist said today. The problem over the decades involved has not be...

Malaysia reaping inequality, corruption and racial envy from race-based policies: Malaysia's affirmative action policies in the past 40 years have created a culture of dependency, corruption and racial envy, a prominent Malaysian economist said today. The problem over the decades involved has not been with the intent nor the content of the NEP and its successors, but the manner of their implementation, which have produced new inequalities, poverty and vulnerabilities in the development process. Inequality in Malaysia now goes beyond race, says a prominent economist, who also pointed out the failure of Malaysia's affirmative action policies. – The Malaysian Insider pic, November 25, 2014.  MIGRASI DAN PROSES PERBANDARAN  Urbanization: the economic and demographic growth process of the urban centers.  Secara umumnya, apabila semakin membangun sesebuah negara (diukur berdasarkan Y per kapita), bhgn. populasi yg. tinggal di kwsn. bandar akan menjadi semakin besar.  Antara perkara yg. sgt. signifikan dlm. fenomena demografi moden ialah pertumbuhan pantas bandar-bandar di negara membangun (NM).  Pd. 1950, kira-kira 275 juta penduduk tinggal di bandar-bandar di NM (38% drpd. 724 juta jum. populasi bandar).  Pd 2010, jum. populasi bandar dunia melebihi 3.4 billion, dgn. lebih ¾ jumlah populasi bandar tinggal di kawasan metropolitan di low & middle income countries.  Pertumbuhan populasi bandar secara umumnya jauh lebih pantas berbanding pertumbuhan populasi secara agregat dgn. kira-kira separuh dari pertumbuhan bandar disumbangkan oleh migrants dari luar bandar (menerusi rural-urban migration) Figure 8.1 Changes in Urban and Rural Population by Major Areas between 2011 and 2050 (in millions) Figure 7.1 Megacities: Cities with 10 Million or More Inhabitants Figure 8.3 Total Population in Millions by City Size Class, 1970, 1990, 2011 and 2025  Persoalan utama dari kepesatan proses perbandaran di NM  Bagaimana bandar-bandar ini mampu untuk berdepan dan menangani penumpuan populasi yg. sgt. padat dan pesat secara economically, environmentally, and politically?  Walaupun bandar menawarkan antara lain spt. cost-reducing advantages of agglomeration economies and economies of scale and proximity, dan eksternaliti ekonomi dan sosial lain (spt. pekerja mahir, pengangkutan yg.murah, social and cultural amenities), tetapi kos sosial dari limpahan populasi bandar yg. pesat (spt.peningkatan jenayah, pencemaran, kesesakan penempatan dll) dikhuatiri akan mengatasi faedah perbandaran.  Perbandaran yg. pesat juga menyumbang kpd. pertumbuhan pesat slums and shanty-towns di NM. Kini penempatan setinggan mewakili lebih 1/3 populasi Bandar di semua NM. Figure 8.4 Annual Growth of Urban and Slum Populations, 1990–2001 Guryong Village is known as the last shanty town in Gangnam, Seoul’s wealthiest district – whose rich inhabitants were lampooned in the pop song Gangnam Style. Photograph: Kim Jae-Hwan/AFP The dilapidated homes in Guryong are built out of plywood, metal, sheets of plastic and cardboard boxes, yet residents have even established a postal service. Photograph: SeongJoon Cho/Bloomberg via Getty Images A boy drinks water from a pump near a slum on the banks of the Yamuna river in Delhi. The Indian authorities removed more than 300,000 people from the area between 2004 and 2006. Photograph: Reuters The 10 world cities with the highest murder rates – in pictures Data from the UN Office on Drugs and Crime shows the most up-to-date available homicide rates per 100,000 people for the most populous cities of 137 countries. The Americas overtook Africa as the region with the highest murder rate in 2012 – with eight of the world’s 10 deadlyest cities found there. 2: Caracas, Venezuela. (Murder rate: 122 in 2009) Worst hit are the poor barrios where police dare not enter, gangs rule and murders are routine, according to Reuters. The government refuses to release its own statistics, but a VOV report estimated 24,000 people were murdered in 2013. Photograph: Carlos Garcia Rawlins/Reuters With an estimated population of one million, Kibera is the largest urban slum in Africa. Photograph: David Levene  Hubungan antara perbandaran dan pembangunan: Peranan bandar  Mengapa bandar dibangunkan/dibentuk? – kerana bandar menyediakan cost advantages kpd. pengeluar dan pengguna menerusi agglomeration economies.  Agglomeration economies: cost advantages to producers and consumers from location in cities and town, which take the forms of urbanization economies and localization economies.  Agglomeration economies terbahagi kpd dua bentuk iaitu urbanization economies dan localization economies.  urbanization economies: agglomeration effects associated with the general growth of a concentrated geographic region.  localization economies: agglomeration effects captured by particular sectors of the economy, such as finance or automobiles, as they grow within an area.  Sektor Tidak Formal Bandar  Informal sector: the part of the urban economy of developing countries characterized by small competitive individual or family firms, petty retail trade and services, labor-intensive methods, free entry, and market-determined factor and product prices. Mengapa sektor tidak formal bandar penting?  Menyediakan peluang pekerjaan yg. besar - kira-kira separuh dari populasi bandar bekerja dlm sektor ini. Ciri-ciri sektor tidak formal bandar: 1. Jumlah aktiviti pengeluaran dan perkhidmatan berskel kecil milik individu/keluarga adalah besar & menggunakan teknologi intensif buruh yg. mudah. 2. Beroperasi seperti firma monopolistik – mudah utk diceburi, berlaku excess capacity, persaingan utk. keuntungan ditentukan oleh purata harga penawaran buruh of potential new entrants 3. Pekerja biasanya bekerja sendiri – pendidikan formal rendah, tiada kemahiran dan sukar mendapat bantuan modal, produktiviti dan Y cenderung rendah  Sektor Tidak Formal Bandar 4. Pekerja tidak menikmati perlindungan spt. yg dinikmati oleh pekerja sektor formal spt. jaminan pekerjaan, keadaan kerja yg. memuaskan dan selesa, dan pencen. 5. Sebahagian besar pekerja adalah migrants yg. berhijrah dari luar bandar – bergantung kpd sumber/keupayaan sendiri utk. melakukan/mewujudkan pekerjaan. 6. Sebahagian besar ahli keluarga terlibat dlm. sektor ini termasuk wanita dan kanak-kanak – sering bekerja utk tempoh masa yg lama. Jenis pekerjaan sektor tidak formal bandar:  Hawking, street vending, letter writing, knife sharpening, and junk collecting to selling fireworks, prostitution, drug peddling, snake charming, mechanics, carpenters, small artisans, barbers, and personal servants  Mengapa sektor tidak formal bandar perlu diberi sokongan?  Generates surplus despite hostile environment  Creating jobs due to low capital intensivity  Access to (informal) training, and apprenticeships  Creates demand for less- or un- skilled workers  Uses appropriate technologies, local resources  Recycling of waste materials  More benefits to poor, especially women who are concentrated in the informal sector Figure 8.5 Importance of Informal Employment in Selected Cities  Wanita dalam sektor tidak formal bandar  Disebahagian besar negara dunia, wanita mendominasi rural-urban migrants dan mewakilki majoriti populasi bandar.  Sebahagian besar wanita yg. berhijrah ini juga sukar memperoleh pekerjaan terutama dlm. sektor yg. didominasi oleh lelaki – mengakibatkan wanita mewakili sebahagian besar penawaran buruh sektor tidak formal bandar, bekerja dgn. upah rendah, pekerjaan yg. tidak stabil, serta tiada jaminan pekerjaan dan sosial.  Trend peningkatan ketua isi rumah bandar dikalangan wanita – didorong oleh migrant wanita yg. belum berkawin. Golongan ini cenderung utk. menjadi miskin dan kekurangan zat, sukar mendapat pendidikan formal, air dan sanitasi, penjagaan kesihatan berdepan kekangan sumber dan mempunyai kadar kesuburan yg. tinggi. A slum building in downtown Phnom Penh, Cambodia, where drugs and prostitution are rampant. Human trafficking survivor Srey Neth was sold here, by her mother, at age 14 to a pimp who later sold Neth’s virginity for $300. (Tim Matsui) A young woman in a Phnom Penh slum. Investigators later found her mother was pimping the drug-addicted girl nightly to upwards of 10 Cambodian men. (Tim Matsui) Goodbye Dolly: bid to close Java's brothel strip Sex workers of Dolly red-light district sit on the road in a protest against the closing of the prostitution complex in Surabaya, East java, Indonesia, Wednesday, June 18, 2014. The government has shut down a red-light district in Indonesia's second largest town amid protests by pimps and sex workers as well as dependents. (AP Photo/Dita Alangkara) Waiting for customers... prostitutes sit behind the window of a brothel in a narrow lane in Surabaya's red-light area, Dolly district, named after a Dutch madam. Photo: Quentin Jones  MIGRASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN  “….For thousands of years, human beings have migrated in search of a better life. Migration is the result of numerous factors; many migrate in search of greater opportunities – to earn a better living, to live in a more agreeable environment or to join family or friends abroad. Of course, a considerable portion of migrants do not choose to move but are forced to flee their homes against their will – refugees escaping persecution, people devastated by conflict or natural disaster, or victims of trafficking. But for those who do choose to migrate, the most fundamental issues are whether they will be happier if they migrate and whether life will be better than it was before…..” World Migration Report 2013 Emigrant: A person who is leaving a country to reside in another. Immigrant: A person who is entering a country from another to take up new residence. Refugee: A person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion. Internally Displaced Person (IDP): A person who is forced to leave his or her home region because of unfavorable conditions (political, social, environmental, etc.) but does not cross any boundaries. Migration Stream: A group migration from a particular country, region, or city to a certain destination.  MIGRASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN Bentuk-bentuk Migrasi: 1. Rural-urban migration – the movement of people from rural villages, towns, and farms to urban centers (cities) in search of jobs.  Bentuk paling penting – penyumbang utama peningkatan populasi bandar walaupun kadar fertiliti bandar adalah jauh lebih rendah.  Potensi faedah pembangunan dari aktiviti-aktiviti ekonomi bandar – kesan agglomeration economies dan faktor-faktor lain. 2. Rural-rural migration 3. Urban-urban migration 4. Urban-rural migration  MIGRASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN Faktor-faktor mendorong individu untuk migrate: 1. Economic factors:  The growing gap in living standards and wages between countries acts as a magnet (referred to as a ‘pull factor’), drawing migrants towards countries with higher standards of living or with greater economic growth and employment opportunities. 2. Governance and public services:  Poor governance, corruption and a lack of good-quality education and health services are ‘push factors’, prompting international migration. 3. Demographic imbalances:  These can take various forms – for instance, decreasing fertility rates and increasing life expectancy in many high-income countries, which contribute to an imbalance in supply and demand for labour between developed and developing regions.  Labour surpluses in lower- and middle-income countries can create underemployment, which can create incentives to migrate.  On the other hand, the aging population in most high-income industrialized countries considerably increases the demand for foreign workers.  MIGRASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN Faktor-faktor mendorong individu untuk migrate: 4. Conflict:  The number of refugees under the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was over 10 million in 2012, and numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) reached 28.8 million (UNHCR, 2013).  Conflicts can be ethnic and/or religious in nature, but they may also be the result of economic inequality or competition for natural resources. Linked to this, the absence of personal freedom (be it in thought, religion or other) can be a motivator, as can discrimination, based on race, ethnicity, gender, religion or other grounds. 5. Environmental factors:  The numbers of people moving as a result of environmental factors such as earthquakes, industrial accidents, floods, soil/coastal erosion and droughts, some of which may be related to climate change, are on the rise. Population movements induced by environmental factors tend to be predominantly internal.  MIGRASI DAN PEMBANGUNAN Faktor-faktor mendorong individu untuk migrate: 6. Transnational networks:  The emergence of organized migrant communities in destination countries constitutes a social and cultural ‘pull factor’. A network of family members abroad can further promote migration as it facilitates the migration process for others, and such movements account for the bulk of the legal migration flows in many industrialized countries.  ALIRAN MIGRASI (MIGRATION PATHWAYS)  Klasifikasi aliran migrasi ini adalah berdasarkan terminologi yg. digunakan oleh the World Bank untuk mengklasifikasikan negara dunia berdasarkan status ekonomi.  ‘North’ refers to high-income countries and  ‘South’ refers to low- and middle-income countries 4 aliran migrasi dunia: 1. North–North: Germany to the United States, followed by the United Kingdom to Australia, and then Canada, the Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom to the United States. 2. South–South: Ukraine to the Russian Federation, followed by the Russian Federation to Ukraine, Bangladesh to Bhutan, Kazakhstan to the Russian Federation, and Afghanistan to Pakistan. 3. South–North: Mexico to the United States, followed by Turkey to Germany, and then China, the Philippines and India to the United States. 4. North–South: the United States to Mexico and South Africa, followed by Germany to Turkey, Portugal to Brazil, and Italy to Argentina. Eight migrants die every day trying to reach richer countries, study reveals Research into migrant deaths in Europe shows 22,000 missing, presumed dead, in past 14 years – more than half the global total Migrants on a dinghy-style vessel after being rescued by the Italian navy on 22 September 2014. Photograph: Italian Navy/EPA A survivor from a sinking off Greece in May. Most European migrant deaths came in attempts to cross the Mediterranean. Photograph: Orestis Panagiotou/EPA Global forced labour generates $150bn a year in illegal profits. the study, by the UN's International Labour Organisation (ILO), found that almost two-thirds of the total profits ($99bn) came from commercial sexual exploitation; the rest was derived from forced economic labour, such as domestic work, construction and mining. Sex workers stand on a roadside pavement for soliciting customers in a red light district in Mumbai. Photograph: Punit Paranjpe/Reuters Slavery in the prawn industry A six-month Guardian investigation has revealed that the fishing industry in Thailand is all too often built on slavery, with men often beaten, tortured and killed to catch fish food to feed prawns sold cheaply in UK and US supermarkets. Our investigation found that the world's largest prawn farmer, the Thailand-based firm Charoen Pokphand Foods, buys fish meal from some suppliers that own, operate or buy from fishing boats manned by slaves. The fish that feed on the meal is then sold to the supermarkets. North Koreans are needed to do the dangerous jobs, says Malaysia Malaysia has defended the use of North Korean labourers in its mining industry, saying they are particularly good workers because of their dedication, strength and bravery. An estimated 65,000 North Korean are working overseas, including miners in Malaysia and construction workers in Nepal. Photograph: David Guttenfelder/AP workers in Nepal. Photograph: David Child slavery makes up more than one quarter of all forced labour. According to official ILO figures, there are at least 5.5 million children living as slaves, although anti-slavery groups claim the real number is almost certainly higher. Local NGOs say there are at least 35,000 children in forced labour conditions in Mumbai's leather industry, brick-making kilns and tea shops alone. In this picture, a group of boys is found in an embroidery workshop in Mumbai during a police raid. Although India has the highest estimated slave population in the world, prosecutions for slavery and trafficking offences are rare Sherwin Crasto/Reuters Every year an estimated 10 million girls, some as young as seven or eight, become child brides. Child marriage is one of the least-acknowledged forms of modern slavery, yet many girls married in childhood face a life of sexual and domestic servitude, and are highly vulnerable to domestic violence, lack of access to education and health services, and have no economic opportunities or freedom of movement Jodi Cobb/NGS/Getty Images In China, recent cases have exposed the widespread exploitation and enslavement of workers with mental illnesses kept in illegal factories. Here, workers without protective clothing incise and polish gypsum ore at a plaster factory in Jingmen in central Hubei province ImagineChina