KPE261 Key Definitions PDF

Key Terms + Definitions Defining and Assessing Learning Motor learning - “A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for movement.” Performance - behavioural act of executing a skill at a specific time in a specific...

Key Terms + Definitions Defining and Assessing Learning Motor learning - “A set of internal processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for movement.” Performance - behavioural act of executing a skill at a specific time in a specific situation Improvement - Person performs at higher level of skill than a previous time Consistency - From one performance attempt to another, a person's performance characteristics should become more similar Stability - performing the same motor skill in a different context/environment; handling influence of perturbations (internal or external conditions) on skill performance Adaptability - transferring knowledge & changing motor pathway to a situation/environment; capability to perform the skill successfully in changed circumstances Persistence - relatively permanent changes; improved performance capability lasts for a long period of time Quick learner - rapid increase in performance Normal learner - slower increase in performance, eventually higher performance Latent learning - not seeing a performance change (doesn’t mean no learning is happening) Retention test - performance test administered after a retention interval/interval of time having not practiced the skill, purpose of assessing learning Transfer test - performance test administered (with or without delay) after an acquisition phase, purpose of assessing how the learning experience can be generalized; performs a skill that is different from the practiced skill (different context or situation) Retention test with a retention interval - test administered after having allowed enough time between the end of practice and competition - can resee how well people have learned Sensory Contributions Exteroceptive - info provided from outside the body/environment Exteroception - provides info to processing system about state of environment in which one’s body exists Proprioceptive - info arising from within the body Proprioception - provides info about the state of the body parts in relation to each other and relative to the environment Intrinsic feedback - info is directly available to a person, naturally through their senses. Augmented feedback - info person is not normally aware, through external sources. Tactile Sensory receptors (for movement) ➔ Merkel cell (tactile disc) - Superficial and Slow-Adapting; pressure & texture ➔ Meissner/Tactile corpuscle - Superficial and Fast-Adapting; stroking & fluttering ➔ Pacini/Lamellated corpuscle - Deep and Fast-Adapting ➔ Ruffini corpuscle - Deep and Slow-Adapting; skin & stretch Visual receptors ➔ M-pathway - parietal (rods); primary control of voluntary action; engage with objects ➔ P-pathway - temporal (cones); useful for recognizing objects Ventral system - contributes to conscious perception of objects; sensitive to only central vision; accuracy degraded by dim lighting conditions Dorsal system - contributes to unconscious fine control of movements; sensitive to both central and peripheral vision Optical Array - visible feature reflects rays of light, enters the eyes at specific angles Optical flow - change in info provided by optical array, flow of light across the retina; provides info of movement through an environment Vestibular/Audition receptors/apparatus - provides signals related to movements, one’s orientation, or both, in one’s environment. ➔ Echolocation - can gather spatial information from auditory cues ➔ Temporal information - auditory cues to time movements Proprioceptive receptors ➔ Muscle spindles - encode the rate of change in muscle length ➔ Golgi Tendon Organs - collagen fibres stretch they encode tension (encodes acceleration); sensitive to the level of force in the various parts of attached muscle ➔ Joint Receptors - receptors in the capsule surrounding each of the joints Guiding techniques - artificially manipulating the learner’s movements during action can affect the proprioceptive sensations Sensory integration - integrating sensory cues; taking multiple estimates and putting them together Reference-of-correctness - expected sensory consequences Closed-Loop control system - feedback loop continues until desired equals expected state (e.g picking up a cup) ➔ Comparator - maintain the desired relative positions of the various limbs as well as general orientation in space Motor Programs Generalized Motor Program (GMP) - set of parameters (ie. force & angle) specified before each trial Rapid movements - organized sequence of muscle movements that are set to be as fast as possible Response-chaining hypothesis - when contracting a chain of muscles, first is believed to require more attention than the subsequent contractions Drum theory - go through a sensory experience and it imprints Reaction time - time between the go signal & when the action is completed Open-Loop control system - system executes instructions without modification; cannot detect/correct errors as there is no feedback involved (e.g traffic signals, microwave) Storage problem - concern on how every separate motor program can be stored in memory Novelty problem - uncertainty of coming up with a new motor plan that we could never do before; ➔ “Novel” - system would need a separate program for every new movement, no movement is the exact same Invariant features of GMP - features that make the pattern remain the same; determines the form Parameters of FMP - change how GMP is expressed/executed at a given time; does not alter invariant characteristics Surface features - allows changes from action to action Deep features - does not allow changes (invariant) Class of movements - infinite number of particular movements; entire class is represented by a GMP Conditions of Practice Law of practice - improvements in average performance rapid/large at first, become systematically smaller as practice continues; whether measure of performance increases or decreases with practice, performance curves are negatively accelerated functions of practice Power Law of Practice - log of performance is linearly related to the log of hours of practice (amount) Deliberate practice - Activities that have been specially designed to improve the current level of performance; require effort and are not inherently enjoyable Off-task practice - Factors that generally apply when learner is not actively engaged in physical performance, such as the effects of modelling (or observation) On-task practice - Methods which physical engagement in practice can be altered and how alterations can affect performance and learning Part practice - separate drill for each limb; separate drill for hardest part of movement Guidance - assistance during execution of the movement Variability of practice - different environment contexts or variations of the movement; variability of learning experiences during practice of a skill Contextual Interference - Interference generated by the context which multiple tasks are practiced, impacting learning Elaborative-Distinctive hypothesis - compare & contrast analysis; task A motor program stored in working memory then task B motor program is stored, comparison between task A and B Forgetting-Reconstruction hypothesis - task A stored in working memory, to do task B must “forget” task A motor program; to redo task A must reconstruct/remember motor program Working memory - temporary storage Blocked Practice - completing all trials of one task consecutively without interruption from other tasks Random practice - same task is rarely repeated on consecutive trials Perceptual learning - performance of tasks with actual stimuli Observational learning - specific kind of perceptual learning, seen through skill demonstrations for learners to observe directly Learned - Info that can be represented spatially can be modeled quite readily, especially if the spatial attributes are presented in a static, discrete manner Augmented Feedback Augmented feedback - any info that “supplements the info that is naturally available”; Info provided about the action, supplemental to the inherent feedback Augment - within or between senses Inherent feedback - info that is naturally available (i.e proprioception, vestibular, tactile info); gained through sensory mechanisms Dimensions of Augmented Feedback ➔ Concurrent feedback - during performance (not always the most useful) ➔ Terminal feedback - after performance ➔ Immediate feedback - right after the performance ➔ Verbal feedback - presented in a form that is spoken or capable of being spoken ➔ Delayed feedback - with a time delay after end of movement (allows time to process inherent FB) ➔ Nonverbal feedback - presented in form not capable of being spoken ➔ Distinct feedback- based in specific trial ➔ Accumulated feedback- based on a number of trials ➔ Knowledge of Result (KR) - info on the outcome of the movement pattern Bandwidth KR - Tolerance limits on errors that define when to provide qualitative or quantitative KR; "Correctness" of the movement defined relative to bandwidth Learner-determined KR - KR provided after a trial, only if participant requested it Erroneous KR - KR containing a bias/error Summary KR - Augmented info about a set of performance trials presented after the set is completed Average KR - A type of summary-KR method that presents results of two or more trials as a statistical average Temporal locus of KR - KR delay; Instantaneous KR could prevent inherent feedback utilization ➔ Knowledge of Performance (KP) - info on execution of the movement Video feedback - visual clip of movement Kinematic feedback - involves various measures derived from movement such as position, time, velocity, and patterns of coordination Biofeedback - Features of the movement that are not perceived directly Kinetic feedback - Describing pure motion; descriptors of forces Mental Practice Mental practice - cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements; can take the form of thinking about the cognitive or procedural aspect of the motor skills, or engaging in visual or kinesthetic imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skill. Imagery - entails illumination, definition and colour Aphantasia - inability to imagine voluntarily MP as part of general preparation - strategy that aids learning, strategy involves elements of MP in 3 steps: getting ready physically, mentally, emotionally Types of Imagery ➔ Motivational Specific - imagery that represent specific goals General mastery - Imagery that represents affecting coping and mastery of challenging situations General Arousal - Imagery that represents feelings of relaxation, stress, arousal, and anxiety in a situation ➔ Cognitive Specific - imagery of performing specific skills General - imagery of strategies related to an event Accepted MP hypotheses ➔ Neuromuscular hypothesis - neuromuscular EMG when imagining movement will be similar to muscular activity EMG; MP of a motor skill has a neuromuscular basis ➔ Brain activity hypothesis - person imagines moved a limb, brain activity is similar to when the person physically moves the same limb ➔ Cognitive hypothesis - expect things; prepare for certain outcomes; strategize for upcoming performance; first stage of learning a motor skill involves a high degree of cognitive activity Emulated - come up with something Simulated - imagining Imagery Ability - individual-characteristics allowing ability to image an action with a high degree of vividness and control Internal Imagery - individual approximates real life situation in a way that the person actually imagines being inside his/her body and experiences the sensations that may occur in the situation External imagery - individual views themselves from the perspective of an observer Kinesthetic imagery - Engages a person in feeling the movement of a skill Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ) - test of imagery ability designed specifically to apply to motor skill performance ➔ Visual - Form as clear and vivid a mental image as possible of the movement just performed ➔ Kinesthetic - Attempt to positively feel yourself making the movement just performed without actually doing it Ability - relatively stable characteristic that indicates potential to perform skills in which that ability is an important component Amount & Distribution of Practice Overlearning - continuation of practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion Procedural Skills - one type of motor skill that is well suited to gaining benefits from overlearning practice strategy; interesting skill combination of cognitive and motor components Distribution of Practice - amount of rest people need between practice trials to ensure optimal learning environment Massed practice - practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice session or trials is very short Distributed practice - practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is relatively long Memory consolidation - process of long term memory storage Continuous skills - most common type of motor skills used to investigate the effects of massed vs distributed practice between trials Discrete skills - very short task