Kine Exam Review PDF

Chapter 5: the skeletal and articular systems CHAPTER 5 REVIEW 5.1 ➔​ Anatomical position The anatomical position is the standard position(standing straight,looking forward, arms atyour side, and hands facing forward) used todescribe the locations and relationships of anatomical parts on your b...

Chapter 5: the skeletal and articular systems CHAPTER 5 REVIEW 5.1 ➔​ Anatomical position The anatomical position is the standard position(standing straight,looking forward, arms atyour side, and hands facing forward) used todescribe the locations and relationships of anatomical parts on your body. ➔​ Describing anatomical position relationships ​ Anterior/ Posterior ​ Medial/ Lateral ​ Superior/ Inferior ​ Proximal/ Distal ➔​ Examples of these relationships Anterior / Posterior The sternum is anterior to the heart (so anterior also means “in front of”). The heart also has an anterior surface. Proximal / Distal Proximal means towards the point of attachment of the limb to the body, whereas distal means farther away from the point of attachment. Superior / Inferior Superior refers to upward surfaces, inferior refers to downward surfaces. Medial / Lateral Medial means towards the midline or towards the median plane, whereas lateral means away from the midline or away from the median plane. ➔​ Describing Body movement A body movement can be described in terms of the anatomical plane through which it occurs and the anatomical axis around which it rotates. THE GENERAL RULE FOR DESCRIBING A BODY MOVEMENT: The axis of rotation is always perpendicular to the plane of movement. ➔​ Types of Movement Flexion → Extension Abduction→ Adduction Plantar Flexion → Dorsiflexion Supintnation → Pronation Inversion→ Eversion External rotation → Internal Rotation Elavation→ Depression 5.2 ➔​ Human body has 206 bones accounting for almost 14% body weight ➔​ Bones are made up of living tissue—bone cells, fat cells, and blood vessels. -Compared to other body systems, the human skeletal system is extremely hard and durable. -Bones themselves are composed primarily of the mineral calcium. -People whose diet is low in calcium may find their bones becoming increasingly brittle and breakable—a major concern for older people (osteoporosis). ➔​ The skeletal system is generally divided into two main parts: the axial skeleton (80 bones) and the appendicular skeleton (126 bones). ➔​ Main Funtions of the skeletal system 1.​ Structural support 2.​ Protection 3.​ Movement 4.​ Growth centre for cells 5.​ Resvoir for Minerals ➔​ Classification of Bones 1.​ Long bones ex femur 2.​ Short bones ex carpal bone 3.​ Seasmoid bones ex patella 4.​ Flat bone ex flat and thin mainly found in skull 5.​ Irregular bones ex. vertebrae ➔​ Bone injuries and Dieases 1.​ Fractures 2.​ Stress fractures 3.​ Shin splints 4.​ osteoporsis 5.3 - Names and loactions of bones 5.4 ➔​ Classification of Joints Joints are classified based on their structure ( What they are made of ) and their function (The type of extent of movement they permit) ➔​ The structural classification recognizes three main types of joints: 1.​ Fibrous joints, 2.​ Cartilaginous joints 3.​ Synovial joints II. The Musculoskeletal System ➔​ Axial Skeleton (80 bones): Vertebral column, skull, rib cage. Provides core stability and posture. ➔​ Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones): Movable limbs and supporting structures (girdles), allowing movement. Includes pectoral girdle, arms, hands, pelvis, legs, feet. ➔​ Bone Landmarks: Surface features (ridges, bumps, grooves) serving as guides for other body structures. -​ Osteoporosis prevention includes a balanced diet, weight-bearing exercise, and avoiding smoking/excessive alcohol. -​ III. Major Bones of the Human Body Visual representations are provided in the source document for: Skull (anterior and lateral views) Vertebral Column (lateral view) Thoracic Cage (anterior view) Left Scapula (anterior, lateral, posterior views) Left Humerus (anterior and posterior views) Left Ulna and Radius (anterior view) Left Hand (anterior view) Pelvis (male, anterior view) Right Femur (anterior and posterior views) Right Fibula (anterior and superior views) Right Foot (superior view) IV. The Articular System (Joints) ​ Synovial Joint Characteristics: Articular cartilage at bone ends Joint capsule (synovial membrane and fibrous capsule) Joint cavity filled with lubricating synovial fluid Bursae (fluid sacs) at friction points Intrinsic ligaments for reinforcement ➔​ Types of Synovial Joints: 1.​ Ball-and-socket: Allows movement in three axes (e.g., shoulder) 2.​ Gliding (Plane, Arthrodial): Flat surfaces gliding against each other (e.g., wrist, ankle) 3.​ Hinge: Movement in one plane (e.g., elbow) 4.​ Pivot: Rotation around one axis (e.g., neck) 5.​ Saddle: Movement in two planes (e.g., thumb) 6.​ Ellipsoid: Movement in two planes (e.g., wrist) ➔​ Joint Injuries and Diseases: ➔​ Dislocations: Bone displaced from joint. ➔​ Separations: Disruption of ligaments (e.g., shoulder separation). ➔​ Osteoarthritis: Cartilage loss at joints. ➔​ Rotator Cuff Tears -​ Tears in the muscles/tendons of the shoulder joint. -​ Specific Joint Illustrations: Left shoulder joint, right knee (various views), right ankle joint (medial and lateral views) Chapter 6: the muscular system CHAPTER 6 6.1 -​ Components: Bones, joints, muscles, and connective tissues. ➔​ Muscle Tissue Types:Smooth: Involuntary, surrounding internal organs. -​ Cardiac: Involuntary, found only in the heart. -​ Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones via tendons. Comprise 30-40% of body weight. ➔​ Muscle Contraction Types: 1.​ Concentric (shortening) 2.​ eccentric (lengthening) 3.​ isometric (static) ➔​ Muscle Naming: 1.​ Based on action 2.​ location, shape 3.​ fiber direction  4.​ Number of divisions/ heads 5.​ Point of attachment. -​ Agonist/Antagonist Pairs: Muscles work in opposing pairs. Agonist is the prime mover antagonist counteracts it. e.g., "Muscles pull. They never push." -​ Origin/Insertion: Muscle attachment points on bones. Origin is stationary, insertion moves during contraction. V. Neuromuscular System & Proprioception 6.3 Neuromuscular System: Complex connection between muscular and nervous systems enabling movement. Sliding Filament Theory: Explains muscle contraction through overlapping of actin and myosin filaments. Motor Unit: A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it stimulates. Follows the all-or-none principle (complete contraction or none). Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Process of muscle contraction triggered by nerve impulse and calcium release. Proprioception: The ability to sense body position, orientation, and movement. (Lesson 6.4) Proprioceptors: Sensory receptors in muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear that detect motion and position. Muscle Spindles: Detect changes in muscle length and trigger stretch reflex. e.g., "The usual example... is the knee-jerk reflex. 6.4 Golgi Tendon Organs: Detect changes in muscle tension and protect against excessive force. Chapter 7: energy systems and physical activity Chapter 8: the cardiovascular and respiratory systems Key Terms -​ Myocardium Specialized muscle tissue (cardiac muscle) that forms the heart. The heart is considered“double pump” that is divided into right and left sides. -​ Pulmonary circulation The main function of the right side of the heart is to pump deoxygenated blood, which has just returned to the body, to the lungs -​ Artries blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. In the systemic circulation, arteries carry oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart towards body tissues. In the pulmonary circulation, arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart towards the lungs. -​ Veins Blood Vessels that carry blood towards the heart In the systemic circulation, veins carry deoxygenated blood towards the right side of the heart from body tissues. In the pulmonary -​ Arterioles Arterioles are vessels in the blood circulation system that branch out from arteries and lead to capillaries, where gas exchange eventually occurs. Surrounded by smooth muscle, arterioles are the primary site of vascular resistance. -​ Capillaries The smallest of the blood vessels, capillaries help to enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other nutrients and waste substances between blood and the tissues of the body. -​ Atria and Ventricles The heart is made up of four chambers (two sides). The upper chambers are called atria (singular: “atrium”), and the lower chambers are called ventricles. Blood is received into the atria and pushed out from the ventricles. The flow of blood through the heart →Blood is delivered to the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava. It passes ``````→ through the tricuspid valve and enters the right ventricle. From there, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve and out through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. → The blood returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. It then passes through the bicuspid valve and enters into the left ventricle. The blood is then pumped out through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta and throughout the systemic circulation. The Skeletal Muscle Pump Definition: The skeletal muscle pump refers to the process by which skeletal muscles contract and help push blood through the veins back to the heart. Function: It plays a crucial role in maintaining venous return, especially during physical activity. -​ The low pressure within the veins causes a problem for the cardiovascular system. -​ The skeletal muscle pump aids in the return of blood back to the heart through the veins. With each contraction of the skeletal muscle, blood is pushed back to the heart. Compostion of Blood Plasma: 55%, Water 90%, Other plasma proteins 7% and Other (acids,salts) 3% Formed Elements 45% > 99% Red blood cells > 1% White blood cells and platlets Cardic Cycle -​ The cardiac cycle is the series of events that occurs through one heart beat. During this cycle there is both a phase of relaxation (diastole), in which the ventricle is filling with blood, and a phase of contraction (systole), in which the heart contracts and ejects the blood. -​ Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the arteries and other vascular vessels. Blood pressure in each of the two phases—diastole and systole—is measured in millimetres of mercury (abbreviated as mmHg). Blood pressure Systolic blood pressure ​ refers to the maximum pressure observed in the arteries during the contraction phase of the ventricle (e.g., 120 mmHg). Diastolic blood pressure ​ is the minimum pressure observed in the arteries during the relaxation phase of the ventricle (e.g., 80 mmHg). The Heart’s Electrical Conduction System The cardiac muscle cells are excitable, meaning that with electrical stimulation they will all contract (this is known as a “syncytium”). Within the heart there are areas of specialized tissue that are important in the regulation and coordination of this electrical activity. These specialized tissues are: ​ the sinoatrial node (SA node) ​ the atrioventrical node (AV node) The contraction of the heart leads to the pumping of blood. Bradycardia and Tachycardia Regular aerobic exercise results in improvements in the efficiency of the cardiovascular system at rest and during exercise. ​ Bradycardia is one of the most easily observed adaptations that occurs with training. Bradycardia is characterized by a heart rate of 60 beats per minute or less at rest, while tachycardia is a heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute at rest. ​ Generally, a lower heart rate is regarded as an indication of an athletic or strong heart. The effects of Exercise During exercise, dramatic changes ocur in the cardiovascular system—changes known as cardiovascular dynamics. The heart and the vessels constantly adapt to accommodate the ever-changing requirements of the body during exercise. Some of the factors that are considered when discussing cardiovascular dynamics are: ​ Cardiac output (Q), ​ Blood pressure (BP), ​ Distribution of blood flow, and ​ Oxygen consumption (VO2). Heart diease Coronary Circulation The system of vessels that supply essential materials via blood to the heart muscle itself is called the coronary circulation. Serious health repercussions and even death can occur if a narrowing or blockage of blood vessels restricts the flow of blood to the heart muscle. For example, a heart attack (a myocardial infarction) can result when blood flow to a section of the heart muscle becomes blocked due to plaque buildup or some other reason. -​ Atherosclerosis Coronary artery disease (also known as atherosclerosis) involves a gradual narrowing of the coronary arteries resulting from the accumulation of hard deposits of cholesterol (plaque), on the lining of the blood vessels. The Causes of Coronary Artery Disease -​ Besides a poor diet, other risk factors associated with coronary artery disease include: ​Smoking, ​Elevated blood lipids, ​Hypertension, ​Family history, and ​Physical inactivity. Each factor individually increases the risk of development of coronary artery disease. When the factors are combined, the risk of coronary artery disease is magnified. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM REVIEW: Functions of the respiratory system The three main functions of the Respiratory system are to 1.​ Supply O2 to the blood, 2.​ Remove CO2 from the blood, 3.​ Regulate blood pH (acid-base balance). Respiration External Respiration External respiration refers to the processes that ockcur within the lungs involving the exchange of O2 and CO2. Internal Respiration Internal respiration refers to the exchange of gases at the tissue level, where O2 is delivered and CO2 is removed. Cellular Respiration Finally, cellular respiration is the process in which the cells use O2 to generate energy in the mitochondria of cells. Structure of the respiratory system -​ The respiratory system can be divided into two main zones — the “conductive zone” and the “respiratory zone.” The conductive zone transports filtered air to the lungs. This zone consists of the Mouth and nose; pharynx; larynx; trachea; primary and secondary bronchi; and tertiary bronchioles and terminal bronchioles. The respiratory zone is where gas exchange occurs. Bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and the alveolar sacs are all structures of the respiratory zone that are involved with the exchange of gases between inspired air and the blood. The mechanics of breathing -​ The combination of inspiration and expiration together is known as “ventilation.” Inspiration is an active process, requiring the contraction of various respiratory muscles and therefore the expenditure of significant amounts of energy. -​ Air flows into the lungs due to increased Lung Volume following the contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Expiration, on the other hand, may be passive, as in quiet breathing (which may not require much energy) or active (as in forced breathing). -​ Air is expelled from the lungs due to relaxation of the diaphragm and the Intercostal muscles. The control of Ventilation Breathing results from the contraction and relaxation of the inspiratory muscles and the expiratory muscles. The contraction of muscles is dependent on stimulation from the central nervous system (CNS). ★​ All aspects of breathing are closely associated with the overall need of O2, metabolic processes, muscle activity, and the production of CO2. ★​ Control of breathing is very complex and involves many different forms of feedback from specialized sensory systems to the neural control centres within the brain. Gas exchange ★​ The average person’s lungs have about 300 million alveolar sacs (that is about a tennis court’s worth), each of which is surrounded by a web of capillaries. ★​ The walls of each capillary are one cell thick, which provides a very short distance for gases to diffuse. Diffusion The primary factor that mediates gas exchange both at the lung (where blood becomes oxygenated and CO2 is removed) and at the tissue (where O2 is delivered for metabolism and CO2 is removed) is diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of a gas, liquid, or solid from a region of highconcentration to a region of low concentration through random movement.bw Diffusion can only occur if a difference in concentration exists, and such a difference is called a concentration gradient. O2 Transport O2 Transport The process by which O2 is absorbed in the lungs and carried to the peripheral tissues. CO2 Transport The process by which CO2 in blood is moved into the alveoli and then exhaled from the body. The Rest-to-Exercise Transition The delivery of O2 to the working skeletal muscle is achieved through a combination of physiological mechanisms. However, this is not instantaneous. During this “lag,” a phenomenon called oxygen deficit (O2 deficit) occurs. Oxygen Deficit (O2 Deficit) the difference between the oxygen required to perform a task and the oxygen actually consumed prior to reaching a new steady state. The trained individual will reach this steady-state plateau faster than an untrained individual. O2 Defict Ventilatory Threshold A state in which Ventilation increases much more rapidly than workload Lactate threshold The point where blood lactate concentrations begin to increase Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation When lactate levels begin to accumulate rapidly in the blood, this is referred to as the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA). With training, the Curve for lactate threshold VO2max Maximal rate of Oxygen consumption (VO2max) VO2max is the maximum volume (V) of oxygen (O2) in millilitres that the human body can use in one minute, per kilogram of body weight, while breathing air at sea level. Respiratory Diseases Asthma is a disease that is characterized by spasm of the smooth muscles that line the respiratory system, an oversecretion of mucous, and swelling of the cells lining the respiratory tract. Many factors can lead to an asthma attack, including exercise, allergic reaction, contaminates, and stress. Fortunately, most cases of asthma can be controlled through the use of different medications. → Some Olympic-level athletes have beendiagnosed with asthma and yet are able to compete internationally. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a general term that describes a family of diseases that lead to a dramatic reduction in airflow through the respiratory system. Individuals with COPD cannot perform normal everyday activities without experiencing dyspnea (shortness of breath). Treatment of COPD conditions includes not only medications but also supplemental oxygen therapy for severe cases, as well as respiratory muscle training. Chapter 9: human growth and development Physical: The growth and development of the bodys muscles, bones,energy systems, and nervous system Cognitive: Our ability to interpret and process information and the introduction and establishment of a person’s self concept or self- awareness Social: The development of relationships with peers, friends, relatives,adults, and others in the “outside world” Emtional: our ability to manage and regulate emotions such as fear, pleasure The concept of “Age” Chronological age: Skeletal age: Devlopmental age: Chapter 10: motor learning and skill acquisition Stages of Motor Learning, Skills Development, and the Impact of Coaching Motor Learning & Skill Acquisition: Introduces the concept of motor learning, highlighting how consistent practice improves skills and the importance of psychological factors and coaching in skill development. What Is Motor Learning?: Defines motor learning as the process through which individuals develop the ability to perform a task through a combination of physical and psychological factors. The Stages of Motor Learning Model: Explains the three-stage model by Fitts and Posner – cognitive, associative, and autonomous – describing the learner's progression from understanding the task to automatic execution. The Cognitive Stage of Motor Learning: Focuses on the first stage where beginners grasp the basics of the task and begin to develop movement strategies. The Associative Stage of Motor Learning: Discusses the second stage where learners refine skills, become aware of their mistakes, and see fewer errors in their performance. The Autonomous Stage of Motor Learning: Explains the final stage where the skill becomes automatic, allowing the performer to focus on refining specific aspects and strategy. Fundamental Movement Skills: Introduces the foundational skills necessary for physical literacy and participation in various physical activities and sports. Three Categories of Fundamental Movement Skills: Classifies fundamental movement skills (FMS) into three categories: stability (balance), locomotion (traveling), and manipulation (object control). Skill Transferability: Explains how acquiring FMS leads to skill transferability, enabling individuals to apply learned skills to different activities, especially those with similar movements. FMS, Physical Literacy, and LTAD: Connects FMS to physical literacy and its importance in the Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model, which emphasizes fundamental skills training in its early stages. Lesson 10.2: Skills Development Skills Development and Analysis: Emphasizes the importance of analyzing skills by breaking them down into phases to understand and refine their development. Breaking Down a Skill: Divides movement skills into three phases: preparation, execution, and follow-through, detailing their role in overall performance. The Preparation Phase: Explains how this phase sets the stage for successful skill execution by ensuring proper body positioning and readiness. The Execution Phase: Focuses on generating momentum and applying correct technique during the main action of the skill for successful execution. The Follow-Through Phase: Discusses the significance of follow-through for accuracy and force production, stressing the need for proper timing and body control. Improving Skill Development: Highlights the coach's role in observing, analyzing, and providing constructive feedback to facilitate skill improvement. The Importance of Feedback: Emphasizes the value of verbal feedback, especially positive, constructive, and specific feedback that guides the learner towards improvement. KP and KR Feedback: Differentiates between Knowledge of Performance (KP) feedback, focusing on the performance itself, and Knowledge of Results (KR) feedback, addressing the outcome of the action. Knowledge of Performance (KP) Feedback: Defines and provides examples of KP feedback, illustrating how it helps athletes refine techniques and improve movement efficiency. Knowledge of Results (KR) Feedback: Defines and provides examples of KR feedback, highlighting its role in analyzing success and understanding the impact of actions. Giving Feedback, and Acting on It: Emphasizes the critical role of effective feedback and the athlete's ability to act upon it for achieving success in physical activities. Lesson 11.1: The Nature of Forces and Newton’s Laws of Motion ​ ​ Biomechanics: Study of forces acting on the human body and the resulting motion. ​ ​ Force: A push or pull (vector quantity). ​ ​ External Forces: Gravity, wind resistance. ​ ​ Internal Forces: Muscle contractions. ​ ​ Newton’s Three Laws of Motion: ​ 1.​ Law of Inertia: An object remains at rest or in motion unless acted upon by an external force. ​ 2.​ Law of Acceleration: (Force equals mass times acceleration). ​ 3.​ Law of Action-Reaction: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Lesson 11.2: Lever Systems in the Human Body ​ ​ Levers: Simple machines with three components: fulcrum (axis), effort, and load. ​ ​ Classes of Levers: ​ ​ Class 1: Fulcrum between effort and load (e.g., neck extension). ​ ​ Class 2: Load between fulcrum and effort (e.g., ankle plantarflexion). ​ ​ Class 3: Effort between fulcrum and load (e.g., biceps curl). ​ ​ Applications: Lever systems are key to movement efficiency, training, and rehabilitation. Lesson 11.3: Types of Motion ​ ​ Linear Motion: Straight-line movement of a body (e.g., hockey puck sliding). ​ ​ Angular Motion: Rotation around an axis (e.g., pivoting in basketball). ​ ​ Combined Motion: Human movement often combines linear and angular motions. ​ ​ Forces and Torque: ​ ​ Centric Force: Acts through the center, causing linear motion. ​ ​ Eccentric Force: Acts off-center, causing angular motion and torque. Lesson 11.4: Applied Biomechanics ​ ​ Applications of Biomechanics: ​ ​ Ergonomics (workplace design for efficiency and safety). ​ ​ Design of prosthetics, orthotic devices, and sports equipment. ​ ​ Prevention and rehabilitation of sports injuries. ​ ​ Improving performance in parathletics. ​ ​ Career Relevance: ​ ​ Fields: Physiotherapy, coaching, product design, rehabilitation, and more. ​ ​ Focus: Enhance movement efficiency, prevent injuries, and improve quality of life. Lesson 12.1: Stability Principle 1: Stability ​ ​ Definition: Stability increases with greater mass, a lower center of mass, a larger base of support, and the center of mass being closer to the base. ​ ​ Key Concepts: ​ ​ Stability: Resistance to changes in motion. ​ ​ Balance: Even distribution of mass for steadiness. ​ ​ Mass: Quantity of matter in a body. ​ ​ Center of Mass: Imaginary midpoint where mass is concentrated (e.g., near the navel in an upright person). ​ ​ Base of Support: The area beneath an object/person providing support. ​ ​ Examples: ​ ​ Gymnasts and football players increase stability by widening their base of support. ​ ​ Athletes may intentionally reduce stability to facilitate specific movements (e.g., in football tackles). Summary: Stability depends on mass, center of mass, base of support, and center of mass positioning relative to the base. Lesson 12.2: Maximum Effort Principle 2: Production of Maximum Force ​ ​ Maximum force is achieved by engaging all possible joint movements. ​ ​ Example: A professional baseball player’s swing uses sequential joint movements from legs, hips, and arms for optimal force. Principle 3: Production of Maximum Velocity ​ ​ Maximum velocity requires joint activation from largest to smallest (proximal to distal). ​ ​ Examples: ​ ​ Throwing a baseball: Sequential movements from legs, hips, arms, and wrists. ​ ​ Golf: Controlled sequencing from legs and hips to the arms and club. Summary: ​ ​ Principle 2: Use all joint movements for maximum force. ​ ​ Principle 3: Sequence joint movements (large to small) for maximum velocity. Lesson 12.3: Linear Motion Principle 4: Impulse-Momentum Relationship ​ ​ Definition: Greater applied impulse (force × time) leads to higher velocity. ​ ​ Examples: ​ ​ High jump: Push against the ground to generate force and achieve height. ​ ​ Volleyball serve: Momentum from body motion is transferred to the ball. Principle 5: Direction of Application of the Applied Force ​ ​ Movement occurs opposite to the applied force, following Newton’s third law. ​ ​ Examples: ​ ​ Swimmers push against the pool wall to propel forward. ​ ​ Soccer players push off the ground to change direction. Summary: ​ ​ Principle 4: Velocity increases with greater impulse. ​ ​ Principle 5: Movement is opposite to the applied force. Lesson 12.4: Angular Motion Principle 6: Production of Angular Motion (Torque) ​ ​ Angular motion occurs when a force is applied off-center (eccentric force). ​ ​ Factors Influencing Torque: ​ ​ Amount of force applied. ​ ​ Length of the lever arm. ​ ​ Angle of application (perpendicular force is most effective). ​ ​ Example: Using a wrench—greater lever arm length increases torque. Principle 7: Conservation of Angular Momentum ​ ​ Angular momentum remains constant in free fall unless influenced by external torque. ​ ​ Adjusting Moment of Inertia: ​ ​ Tucking arms/legs reduces inertia, increasing rotation speed (e.g., trampolining). ​ ​ Extending arms/legs increases inertia, slowing rotation (e.g., divers preparing for water entry). Summary: ​ ​ Principle 6: Torque generates angular motion, influenced by force, lever arm length, and angle. ​ ​ Principle 7: Angular momentum is constant in the absence of external torque. Chapter 14: nutrition for human performance