Kin 474 Exam 1 Notes PDF

**KIN 474 Exam 1 Notes** **Chapters 1-3, 15, & 17** **Chapter 1: Muscle structure & function -- Neuromuscular control** **1.1 Muscle Structure and Function** **Neuromuscular Adaptations** - Resistance training over 3-6 months improves force production and maximal movement. - Strength g...

**KIN 474 Exam 1 Notes** **Chapters 1-3, 15, & 17** **Chapter 1: Muscle structure & function -- Neuromuscular control** **1.1 Muscle Structure and Function** **Neuromuscular Adaptations** - Resistance training over 3-6 months improves force production and maximal movement. - Strength gains range from 25% to 100%. - Neural control and muscle hypertrophy are altered. - Strength gain potential is higher in young males. - Muscle plasticity levels are elevated. **Selye\'s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)** - GAS explains how the body responds to training stress. - The body adapts or exhausts depending on the training stimulus. - The alarm phase is the initial recognition of the stimulus and is often accompanied by fatigue. - Resistance phase is when body adaptation occurs leading to an elevated baseline. - Supercompensation is caused by the adaptive response, resulting in a new higher level of performance capacity. - Overtraining can cause performance suppression if stressors are too high. **Muscle Damage and Adaptations** - Unaccustomed eccentric exercise (downhill running) leads to muscle damage and the release of cytosolic enzymes and myoglobin. - High muscle force damage the sarcolemma. - Metabolites (e.g., calcium) accumulate; producing more damage. - Resulting reduced force capacity. **Glycogen Supercompensation** - Glycogen levels are affected by exercise and recovery. - Low glycogen levels precede exercise. - Normal glycogen levels exist during recovery. - Following recovery, high levels of glycogen (supercompensation) are observed. **Adaptations to Resistance Training** - Various system variables are affected by resistance training. - Muscle fiber number, size, type, and strength show increases/changes. - Mitochondria volume/density changes. - Twitch contraction time decreases. - Enzymes show increases or no change. - Basal metabolism is not known to change, but intramuscular fuel stores and aerobic capacity increase or are not affected by resistance training. **Adaptations in Force Gradation** - The amount of force generated by a muscle fiber is dependent on the number of cross-bridges. - Five ways to acutely increase force are: -Motor unit recruitment -Motor unit discharge frequency -Motor unit type -Stretch reflex activation -Speed of contraction **Neural Adaptations** - Anaerobic training causes adaptations along the neuromuscular chain, starting at higher brain centers and progressing to muscle fibers. - High-intensity training elicits greater adaptations. - Neural adaptations occur early in a training program. - Motor cortex activity increases with both increasing force development and new exercise/movement - This is learned. **Neural Adaptations (More Detailed)** - Maximal strength and power increase through increases of recruitment, firing rate, firing synchronization, or combination of these. - Untrained individuals can only voluntarily activate \~70% of muscle tissue. - Possible neuromuscular junction changes with anaerobic training include increased surface area, dispersed and irregular shaped synapses, and an increase in length of nerve terminal branching. - Acetylcholine receptors disperse in the end plate region. - Proprioceptor adaptations include enhancement of the stretch reflex for magnitude and rate of force development. - Muscles spindles and elasticity are also impacted, leading to shorter amortization and a threshold increase in GTO. - Inhibitory impulses also decrease **Size Principle Adaptations** - With heavy-resistance training, all muscle fibers (Type I & Type II) grow and are recruited in a consecutive order based on their size (size principle) to increase strength. - Advanced lifters may adapt by recruiting motor units out of consecutive order, enabling greater power production. **Muscular Adaptations** - Anaerobic training leads to muscle hypertrophy (growth) increasing strength and power. - Strength and power increases involve connective tissue (tendons & fascia): - Changes also occur in muscle substrate content and glycolytic enzyme activity. **Muscular Adaptations (More Detail)** - Skeletal muscle adapts to anaerobic training by increasing size (cross-sectional diameter), transitioning fiber types, and enhancing biochemical and ultrastructural components. - This leads to improved muscular strength, power, and endurance. - The changes in the structure of the muscle itself (architecture) lead to improved function. - Resistance training results in changes such as increased myofibrillar volume, sarcoplasmic density, sarcoplasmic reticulum and T-tubule density, sodium-potassium ATPase activity. - Sprint training increases calcium release; resistance training increases the angle of pennation. - Other muscular adaptations also occur, including reduced mitochondrial density, reduced capillary density, increased buffering capacity (acid-base balance), and changes in muscle substrate content and enzyme activity. **Muscular Adaptations Terms** - **Hypertrophy:** Increased muscle size due to increased cross-sectional area of existing fibers. - **Hyperplasia:** Increase in the number of muscle fibers through splitting. - **Atrophy:** Decrease in muscle size and girth. - **Sarcopenia:** Age-related muscle atrophy. **How do Muscles Hypertrophy?** - Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy: Increased sarcoplasm (the cytoplasm surrounding myofibrils) and storage of muscle substrates. - Myofibrillar hypertrophy: Increased size of myofibrils through increasing the number of myofilaments (actin and myosin); resulting in the increase of sarcomeres in parallel. - Muscles grow bigger in size by increasing the number of myofibrils and the size of these myofibrils. - Myofibril size is increased through the addition of contractile proteins (actin/myosin) and by increasing the number of sarcomeres in parallel. **Satellite Cells & Hypertrophy** - Satellite cells are myogenic stem cells for muscle regeneration. - Acute damage or rapid stretching activates and proliferates satellite cells. - Satellite cells migrate where damage has occurred and repair the myofibers. - Satellite cells become new myonuclei within the fibers to maintain adequate myonuclear domains for muscle hypertrophy. **Connective Tissue Adaptations** - Tendons, ligaments, and fascia increase with mechanical forces related to exercise intensity to create greater adaptation. - Anaerobic exercise/training causes changes in the connective tissues leading to greater strength and load-bearing capacity. - Fibroblasts create primary collagen fibers such as Type I for ligaments and tendons, Type II for cartilage. **Connective Tissue Adaptations (More Detail)** - Specific tendinous changes result from an increase in collagen fibril diameter and a greater number of covalent cross-links in the already hypertrophied fibers. - The number and packing density of collagen fibrils increase. **Connective Tissue Adaptations (Bone Remodeling)** - Trabecular bone responds more rapidly to stimuli than does cortical bone. - Minimal essential strain (MES) is the threshold stimulus for new bone formation. - The MES is approximately 1/10th of the force required to fracture bone. - Muscle strength and hypertrophy increase the force on bones resulting in an increase in bone mineral density (BMD). **Why do we see specific adaptations?** - The type of stress and exercise dictate what adaptations happen. - The amount and volume of exercises determine what adaptations are prioritized for response. - The way workouts or training programs are structured lead to certain adaptations for example (high rep/low load vs low rep/high load) **Training Type → Adaptations** - The type of stress and exercise dictate the subsequent adaptation response (General Adaptation Syndrome). - High load resistance training prioritizes adaptations that improve mechanical strength. - High volume/short rest training prioritizes adaptations that address metabolic stress and muscle damage. **1.2 Motor Unit Recruitment** **Motor Units** - A motor unit consists of the anterior motor neuron and the specific muscle fibers it innervates - Each muscle fiber typically receives input from only one neuron - A neuron can innervate many muscle fibers - The number of muscle fibers per motor neuron is related to the muscle\'s function (e.g., muscles requiring less precision may have more fibers per neuron) - Muscles requiring fine motor control have fewer fibers per neuron, while those needing more power have more fibers per neuron **All-or-None Principle** - A strong enough stimulus to trigger an action potential in a motor neuron activates all muscle fibers in that unit simultaneously - A motor neuron stimulus does not cause some fibers to contract - Each motor unit either contracts fully or not at all; no partial contractions - A stronger action potential does not result in a stronger contraction within a unit **Gradation of Force (Acute)** - The force generated by a muscle depends on several factors within a group of muscles - Number of motor units recruited (more units = more force) - Frequency of motor unit discharge (more frequent = greater tension) - Type of motor units recruited (larger/Type II = more force) - Preloading the muscle (activating stretch reflex = greater force) - Speed of contraction (affects force generation) **Summation of Force** - Normal movements are sustained contractions built from simple twitches - Increasing stimulus frequency in fibers limits time to relax allowing summation of force production - This faster frequency leads to stronger contractions (tetanus) **Muscle Actions** - **Static (isometric):** Muscle produces force without changing length; joint angle unchanged - **Isotonic:** Muscle produces force with change in length; concentric (shortening) or eccentric (lengthening) - **Isokinetic:** Muscle movement at constant speed **Force-Velocity Curve** - Illustrates the relationship between force and velocity of muscle contraction (force production decreasing with increased shortening velocity) - Maximal isometric force is greatest at zero velocity (no shortening or lengthening) - Force decreases as shortening velocity increases, whereas force decreases more slowly as lengthening velocity increases **1.3 Muscle Fiber Type** **Muscle Fiber Types** - Fast twitch muscle fibers use anaerobic metabolism for fuel, providing short bursts of speed. They fatigue quickly and are great for sprinters. - Slow twitch muscle fibers use oxygen for fuel, providing continuous energy and extended muscle contraction. They are slow to fatigue and ideal for marathoners. **Motor Unit Characteristics** - A motor unit contains one specific muscle fiber type (Type I or Type II) or a subdivision of Type II. - Motor units are classified based on twitch, tension, and fatigability characteristics of the muscle fibers. **Twitch Characteristics** - Type I fibers are slow twitch, low force, and fatigue-resistant. - Type IIx fibers are fast twitch, high force, and fatigue quickly. - Type IIa fibers are fast twitch, moderate force, and fatigue resistant. - Motor neurons stimulate muscle fibers, modulating their properties and adaptive response to stimuli. **Muscle Fiber Type Properties** - The proportion of muscle fiber types varies between individuals and muscles. - Skeletal muscle fibers differ in oxidative and glycolytic capacity, number of capillaries, mitochondria, myoglobin content, sarcoplasmic enzymes, and muscle fiber efficiency. - For example, soleus is primarily Type I (80%). **Motor Unit Size Principle** - Low-threshold motor units are recruited first, followed by high-threshold motor units. - This is crucial for coordinated muscle actions. - Lower-threshold motor units have lower force capabilities. - This gradual recruitment allows for smooth, controlled movements or fine-tuning of muscle actions. - Recruitment of motor units is orderly. **Chapter 2: Biomechanics** **2.1 Biomechanics of weight training -- Levers** **RT Biomechanics: Lever Systems** - Muscles pull on bones to create movement - Bones act as levers to transmit force through the body to the environment. - The musculoskeletal system includes the axial skeleton (e.g., spine, ribs) and appendicular system (e.g., limbs). **Skeletal Musculature** - Muscles are arranged to enable movement of the skeleton. - Origin: Proximal attachment of the muscle - Insertion: Distal attachment of the muscle **Key Terms** - **Agonist:** The muscle primarily responsible for a movement (prime mover). - **Antagonist:** The muscle that opposes or slows down a movement. **Levers of the Musculoskeletal System** - Many muscles in the body act as levers. - In sport and exercise, movements mostly occur via bony levers. - **Lever:** A rigid or semi-rigid body that, when force is applied away from the pivot point (fulcrum), moves an object. **A Lever** - Levers transmit forces tangentially from one point along an object to another. - **FA**: Force applied to the lever - **MAF**: Moment arm of the applied force - **FR**: Force resisting the lever\'s rotation - **MRF**: Moment arm of the resistive force - The applied force equals the resisting force, but in the opposite direction. **Key Term: Mechanical Advantage** - Ratio of the moment arm through which an applied force acts to the moment arm through which a resistive force acts. - Mechanical advantage \> 1.0 means the applied force is less than the resistive force to produce the same amount of torque. - Mechanical advantage \< 1.0 means the applied force is greater than the resistive force. **First-Class Levers** - The muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum. - **Example:** Elbow extension (e.g., triceps extension). - A first-class lever can have equal or unequal mechanical advantage **A First-Class Lever (Elbow Extension)** - Elbow extension (e.g., triceps extension) utilizes a first-class lever configuration. - Muscle force (FM) and resistive force (FR) act on opposite sides of the fulcrum (joint). - The moment arm of the muscle force (Mm) is often shorter than the moment arm of the resistive force (Mr), creating a mechanical disadvantage (0.125 in one example). **Second-Class Levers** - Muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum; the muscle force moment arm is longer. - **Example:** Standing heel raise (plantar flexion). - Due to the longer moment arm, the muscle force required is smaller than the resistive force **A Second-Class Lever (Plantar Flexion)** - The plantar flexion lever results in a mechanical advantage to muscles, meaning the applied force (muscle) is less than the resistive force. **Third-Class Levers** - Muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum; muscle force moment arm is shorter than the resistive force moment arm. - **Example:** Bicep curl - To generate torque equivalent to the resistive force, the required muscle force is greater than the resisting force. **A Third-Class Lever (Elbow Flexion)** - Elbow flexion (e.g., bicep curl) is an example of a third-class lever - Mechanical disadvantage (Mm shorter than Mr). - The muscle force (FM) is greater than the resistive force (FR) to generate an equal torque. **Moment Arm and Mechanical Advantage** - The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the tendon\'s line of action varies throughout the range of motion in elbow flexion. - A shorter moment arm results in less mechanical advantage. **2.2 Biomechanics of sports applications** **Biomechanics of Sport Applications** - Force equals mass times acceleration (F=ma) - This principle is fundamental to understanding forces in sport - Ground Reaction Force (GRF) of 2004N is a force exerted by the ground on the body during movement - Force vectors include horizontal and vertical components (e.g. Fy, Fx) - Angle of 122 degrees may represent a force orientation - 49 degrees is also a possible angle measure in a force diagram **Anatomical Planes** - Body is erect, arms down, palms forward by definition in human biomechanics - Sagittal plane divides the body into left and right sections - Frontal plane slices the body into front and back sections - Transverse plane divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections **Key Point: Specificity** - Specificity of exercise is crucial - Analyze the sport movements; qualitative or quantitative - Identify joint movements to understand whole-body actions - Exercise programs should emphasize and target similar joint movements **Joint Movements in Sport** - Numerous diagrams of specific joint movements in different sports. This data allows for exercises that target specific actions. - Examples include: wrist flexion/extension, elbow flexion/extension, shoulder flexion/extension, lower back flexion/extension, hip flexion/extension, and more. **Biomechanics of Strength** - Factors influencing strength include: - Arrangement of muscle fibers - Muscle length - Joint angle - Muscle contraction velocity - Joint angular velocity - Strength-to-mass ratio - Body size **Human Strength and Power** - Basic Definition - Strength: Capacity to exert force at speed - Work: Force \* Distance or Torque \* Angular Displacement - Power: Force \* Velocity or Work / Time - Negative work occurs when a muscle is put under force. **Muscle Cross-Sectional Area (CSA)** - Muscle force is related to cross-sectional area, not volume - Greater CSA means more sarcomeres in parallel - Equal CSA means equal strength, but smaller volume (such as in gymnasts) means more power **Pennation** - Muscle fiber arrangement varies - Pennate muscles have obliquely aligned fibers with a tendon - Angle of pennation is the angle between muscle fibers and line from origin to insertion; 0 degrees means no pennation **Muscle Fiber Arrangements** - Muscles with greater pennation have more parallel sarcomeres and fewer sarcomeres in series - This results in greater force generation but lower shortening velocity. - Pennation can be disadvantageous for eccentric and isometric muscle actions. **Chapter 3: Bioenergetics** **3.1: Bioenergetics intro** **Bioenergetics** - Bioenergetics is the conversion of macronutrients into usable energy forms. - Energy is the ability to perform work. - ATP (adenosine triphosphate) powers all energy-requiring cellular processes. - Other energy stores are used to replenish ATP by ADP phosphorylation. **Biological Energy Systems** - Three basic energy systems exist in muscle cells to replenish ATP: - Phosphagen (sarcoplasm): Phosphocreatine, glucose/glycogen, glycerol, amino acids. - Glycolytic (sarcoplasm): Phosphocreatine, glucose/glycogen, glycerol, amino acids. - Oxidative (mitochondria): Fatty acids, pyruvate from glucose, some deaminated amino acids. - The rate of ATP production depends on **intensity** of activity while duration is secondary consideration **Fuel Substrates Rate vs. Capacity** - **Phosphagen:** - Location: Sarcoplasm - Oxygen necessary? No - Rate of ATP per second: 10 - ATP per molecule of substrate: 1 - Available capacity: \ - Location: Sarcoplasm - Oxygen needed: No - Relative rate (ATP per second): 5 - ATP per molecule of substrate: 2-3 - Capacity: -1 -2 minutes - **Oxidative (from carbs):** - Location: Mitochondria - Oxygen needed: Yes - Relative rate (ATP per second): 2.5 - ATP per molecule of substrate: 32-33 - Capacity: \~90 minutes - **Oxidative (from fat):** - Location: Mitochondria - Oxygen needed: Yes - Relative rate (ATP per second): 1.5 - ATP per molecule of substrate: \100 - Capacity: days  **3.2 Phosphagen system** **Phosphagen System** - The phosphagen system is the primary energy source for short-term, high-intensity activities like resistance training and sprinting. - It\'s active at the start of all exercise regardless of intensity. - It provides ATP for only 3-5 seconds at maximal intensity. - Muscles store \~4-6 times more phosphocreatine (PCr) than ATP. **Stored ATP** - Muscle cells contain a small amount of ATP, requiring continuous resynthesis. - ATP provides the initial burst of energy. - The stored ATP amount is limited. **Phosphocreatine (PCr)** - Phosphocreatine rapidly provides ATP. - Creatine kinase (CK) transfers a phosphate from PCr to ADP, creating ATP. - Muscles store enough PCr for about 10 seconds of maximal intensity. - PCr stores are replenished during recovery through CK reversing the reaction. **Creatine Kinase (CK)** - CK is a reversible enzyme. - Active during high-intensity exercise, taking phosphate from PCr to add to ADP. - Also uses ATP to regenerate PCr during recovery. **Recovery** - Oxidative phosphorylation replenishes ATP stores. - The electron transport chain (ETC) via ATP synthase generates ATP. - PCr recovery takes 3-5 minutes. - Complete phosphagen system recovery takes 8-10 minutes. **3.3 Glycolysis and Lactate** **Glycolysis Overview** - Glycolysis is the breakdown of carbohydrates (either glycogen stored in muscle or glucose from blood) to resynthesize ATP - It is a series of 10 enzymatic reactions - The process can proceed in two directions (fast or slow). **Fast Glycolysis** - Hexokinase traps glucose in the cell, and it can either go through glycolysis or be stored as glycogen - Controlled by the rate-limiting enzyme phosphofructokinase (PFK) - The end product (pyruvate) can be converted to lactate - Also called anaerobic glycolysis - ATP resynthesis is faster but limited in duration - Important for high-intensity exercise - Yields 2 ATP (from glucose) or 3 ATP (from glycogen) **Slow Glycolysis** - The end product of glycolysis (pyruvate) can be shuttled into the mitochondria - This process is often referred to as aerobic glycolysis (or slow glycolysis) - In the mitochondria, pyruvate goes through the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain - Half as fast as fast glycolysis, but provides more ATP - Most important for endurance exercise - Only yields 32 ATP (from glucose) or 33 ATP (from glycogen) **Lactate Production** - During fast glycolysis, the reason lactate is produced instead of using the mitochondria to produce more ATP is for speed - Lactate helps buffer excess acidity created during high-intensity exercise - Mitochondria buffers H+ (acidity) in the ETC, but is too slow in high-intensity exercise **Lactate Myths** - Metabolic acidosis - exercise-induced decrease in pH may be responsible for fatigue after high-intensity exercise - Results from accumulation of H+, not lactic acid - Lactate is not the cause of fatigue - Lactate concentration is a balance between lactate production and removal - Lactate production increases with exercise intensity - Light activity during the postexercise period can increase lactate clearance rates **3.4 Aerobic metabolism** **Aerobic Metabolism Overview** - Aerobic metabolism is the primary source of ATP during low-intensity activities. - It primarily uses carbohydrates and fats as substrates. - The Krebs cycle\'s main function is generating electron carriers. - These electron carriers are transported to the electron transport chain (ETC) to produce ATP. - Over 90% of ATP is generated this way in the body. - Necessary for endurance activities and exercise recovery. **Glycolysis to Krebs Cycle** - Glycolysis produces 2 pyruvate molecules. - Pyruvate, entering the mitochondria, converts to Acetyl-CoA. - Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle. - NADH and FADH₂ enter the electron transport chain (ETC) to synthesize ATP (over 90%). **Oxidative (Aerobic) System** - The ETC takes electrons and hydrogen atoms from NADH and FADH₂ merging them with oxygen to create ATP. - This hydrogen/electron flow powers ATP synthase to form ATP. **Krebs Cycle Details** - Amino acids are oxidized to form Pyruvate and CO₂. - Fatty acids are oxidized via beta oxidation forming Acetyl-CoA. - Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle. - The cycle produces NADH, FADH₂, ATP, and CO₂. - Key enzymes include Isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. **Electron Transport Chain (ETC)** - The ETC is a series of protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. - It receives NADH and FADH₂, which release electrons and hydrogen ions. - This process generates a proton gradient (H⁺). - The gradient drives ATP synthase. - Oxygen accepts electrons and combines with hydrogen ions to form water (H₂O). - Key components include NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome bc1 complex, cytochrome c oxidase complex, and ATP synthase. **3.5 Metabolism & Performance** **Metabolic Regulation & Recovery** - Exercise intensity determines the primary energy system used. - Higher intensity requires faster ATP production. - Lower intensity allows for slower, more efficient ATP production. - No single energy system provides complete energy supply during exercise or rest. **Biological Energy Systems** - Duration and intensity of exercise dictate the primary energy system used. - 0-6 seconds: Extremely high intensity - Phosphagen system. - 6-30 seconds: Very high intensity - Phosphagen and fast glycolysis systems. - 30 seconds to 2 minutes: High intensity - Fast glycolysis. - 2-3 minutes: Moderate intensity - Fast glycolysis and oxidative system. - 3 minutes: Low intensity - Oxidative system. - The relationships between duration, intensity, and primary energy systems used assume best possible performance for a given event. **Substrate Depletion and Repletion - Phosphagens** - Stored ATP lasts 3-5 seconds. - Phosphocreatine (PCr) decreases markedly (50-70%) during the first stage (5-30 seconds) of high-intensity exercise. - PCr can be almost eliminated with very intense exercise. - Complete ATP resynthesis takes 3-5 minutes. - Complete PCr resynthesis occurs within 8-10 minutes. **Substrate Depletion and Repletion - Glycogen** - Glycogen depletion rate is related to exercise intensity. - Above 60% maximal oxygen uptake, muscle glycogen is a major energy substrate. - Entire glycogen content of some muscle cells can become depleted during exercise. - Muscle glycogen replenishment during recovery is linked to post-exercise carbohydrate ingestion. **Lactate & Recovery** - High-intensity exercise can induce metabolic acidosis. - Muscles produce lactate to help counteract acidity. - A cooldown of low-intensity exercise helps flush out excess acidity and lactate. **Ranking of Bioenergetic Limiting Factors** - Light exercise (marathon) is primarily limited by fat stores and lower pH. - Heavy exercise (400m run) is often limited by muscle glycogen stores. - Intense exercise (discus) is frequently limited by ATP and creatine phosphate. - Note: There isn\'t a need to memorize every numerical detail of the ranking table but understanding limiting factors for different exercises is key. - Specific dietary supplements may mitigate some of these limiting factors. **Chapter 15** **Chapter 17: Program design** **17.1 Needs analysis** **Foundational Principles** - Specificity (SAID): Program design must be tailored to the specific demands of a sport. - Overload: Gradually increasing training demands is crucial for improvement. - Progression (Progressive Overload): Systematic increase of training volume or intensity is required for continual progress. **Program Design Variables** - **Needs analysis:** Crucial first step, evaluating the sport and the athlete\'s training status and goals. - **Exercise selection:** Choosing exercises relevant to the sport and individual needs. - **Training frequency:** Determining how often exercises are performed. - **Exercise order:** Scheduling exercises based on priority and muscle groups. - **Training load and repetitions:** Adjustments in weight/resistance and reps/sets. - **Volume:** Overall total workout load. - **Rest periods:** Time needed for muscle recovery between sets and workouts. **Needs Analysis (Step 1)** - **Evaluation of the Sport:** - Physiological analysis - Movement analysis - Injury analysis - Position analysis - Seasonal analysis - Team style analysis - Match analysis - **Assessment of the Athlete:** - Training Status (type, length, intensity of previous programs) - Exercise technique experience - **Physical Testing and Evaluation:** - Tests must correlate to the sport & physiological/movement analysis. - Test results should guide the selection. - Comparison with normative data to assess athlete\'s strengths and weaknesses. - **Primary Resistance Training Goal:** Focusing on strength, power, hypertrophy, or muscular endurance. Concentrating on one training outcome per training season. **Step-by-Step Needs Analysis Details** - Needs analysis is a two-stage process (evaluation of the sport and assessment of the athlete.) - This approach helps tailor training programs to specific athletes and sport demands. - Understanding physiological factors involved in different sports assists with the selection, intensity and frequency of training programs. - A balanced perspective that considers a sport\'s needs in relation to athlete\'s characteristics allows the coach to formulate a well-reasoned training program. **17.2 Exercise selection** **Program Design: Exercises** - Program design for exercises covers various aspects to create effective training plans - Exercise selection considers core and assistance, movement analysis of the sport, sport-specific exercises, muscle balance, exercise experience, equipment availability, and training time per session - Core exercises engage multiple large muscles and joints, prioritized for sport improvement; assistance exercises focus on smaller muscle groups and single joints, aiding injury prevention and rehabilitation **Exercise Type** - Core exercises recruit one or more large muscle areas, multi-joint, and receive top priority for sport improvement. - Assistance exercises work smaller muscle areas, single-joint; less critical for improving sport performance, but key for injury prevention and rehabilitation - Structural exercises focus on spine loading directly or indirectly - Power exercises are structural movements done quickly or explosively **Movement Analysis of the Sport** - The more a training activity mirrors sport movement, the higher the positive transfer will be - Training specificity (SAID Principle) considers the movement plane, muscles, and speed involved in a sport - Jumping specificity examples include power cleans, back squats, leg presses, and plyometrics **Muscle Balance** - Muscle balance involves equal strength across joints and opposing muscle groups - Agonist is the muscle that actively creates movement - Antagonist is a passive muscle on the opposite side of the limb - Muscle balance does not require equal strength; rather a proper ratio of strength, power, or endurance **Exercise Technique Experience** - Avoid presuming athletes can perform exercises correctly. - Have athletes demonstrate exercises and provide specific instructions if needed **Exercise Order** - **Power, Core, Then Assistance:** Focus on power movements (e.g., power clean, push jerk, plyometrics) followed by core exercises (e.g., bench press, squats), then assistance exercises (e.g., arm curls, knee extensions) - **Upper and Lower Body Exercises (Alternated):** Alternating upper and lower body exercises allows for better recovery - **\"Push\" and \"Pull\" Exercises (Alternated):** Alternating pushing and pulling exercises improve recovery and recruitment between exercises - **Supersets and Compound Sets:** Supersets work opposing muscles sequentially; compound sets work two different exercises for the same muscle group **Training Frequency** - Training frequency, the number of sessions per specified time, is influenced by training status, sport season demands, training load and exercise type, and other training factors such as aerobic/anaerobic training, practice, and/or job-related physical activity. - Novice, Beginner (2-3), Intermediate (3-4), and Advanced (4-7) athletes have different suggested weekly ranges of sessions in a training program. - Generally, one rest or recovery day should be scheduled between sessions to avoid overworking the same set of muscles. - More experienced athletes may utilize \'split routines\' for their workouts and train different muscle groups on distinct days. **17.3 Loads and Reps** **Program Design: Load & Reps** - Training load is the weight assigned to an exercise set, often the most critical aspect of resistance training. - 1-repetition maximum (1RM) is the greatest weight that can be lifted with proper form for one repetition. - Repetition maximum (RM) is the most weight lifted for a specified number of repetitions. - The heavier the load, the lower the number of repetitions that can be performed. - This relationship is not exact. Lifters might not be able to sustain heavy loads for multiple sets. **Training Load & Reps** - Terminology is used to quantify and qualify mechanical work. - Relationship between load and repetitions is explored. - 1RM and Multiple-RM testing options are discussed. - Estimating a 1RM using tables and prediction equations are options. **Training Load & Reps** - Assigning load and repetitions based on training goals (repetition maximum continuum) is addressed. - Calculating training load and assigning percentages for power training are covered. - Variations in training load are detailed. - Progression of the training load (timing and quantity of load increases) are discussed. **1RM and Multiple-RM Testing Options** - Testing the 1RM requires adequate training status and experience. - Core (multi-joint) exercises should be used for 1RM testing; exercises that consistently assess muscular strength and allow for correct body positioning are best. - Multiple-RMs are for assistance exercises. **1RM Testing Protocol** - Athletes warm up with light resistance to allow 5-10 repetitions. - A one-minute rest period follows. - A warm-up load (allowing 3-5 reps) is estimated. This increases by 10-20 lbs (4-9kg) for upper body and 30-40 lbs (14-18) for lower body. - Athletes rest again (2 minutes). - A second attempt to estimate 1RM (allowing 2-3 reps) is made. - A rest period (2-4 minutes) follows. - A 1RM attempt is made. - The process repeats, adding or subtracting weight until the athlete performs one repetition using proper form. **Determining Training Load** - Method 1: Determine 1RM directly by testing. - Method 2: Determine multiple RM, estimate 1RM, based on goal repetitions. **Variation of the Training Load** - \"Heavy days\" loads are designed for full repetition maximums, the greatest resistance. - Loads for other training days are intentionally reduced for recovery. - Sufficient training frequency and volume are maintained. - Sets x Reps x weight for training volume **Progression of the Training Load** - As the athlete adapts, loads must be increased to continue improvements. - Monitoring athlete responses helps professionals know when and how to increase training loads. - The 2-for-2 rule: If an athlete can perform two or more repetitions over the assigned goal in two consecutive workouts, increase the weight for the next training session. **17.4 Volume & Rest** **Training Volume** - Training volume is the total amount of weight lifted during a training session. - A set is a group of repetitions performed before resting. - Repetition volume is the total number of repetitions in a workout session. - Load volume is the total number of sets multiplied by reps per set and the weight lifted per rep. **Exercise Volume** - Multiple versus single sets: Single sets are appropriate for untrained individuals or beginning training. Higher volumes (more sets) are needed to promote strength gains in intermediate and advanced athletes. - Training status: Beginners may start with one or two sets and increase as training improves. - Primary resistance training goal: The goal (strength, power, hypertrophy, or muscular endurance) affects the repetition and set volume. **Primary Resistance Training Goal** - Strength and power: Lower volumes (fewer repetitions and/or sets) are used to maximize the quality of exercises. - Hypertrophy: Increased muscular size is associated with higher training volumes and performing multiple exercises per muscle group. - Muscular endurance: Many repetitions per set with lighter loads and fewer sets. **Rest Periods** - Time dedicated to recovery between sets & exercises (interset rest) is highly dependent on the training goal, weight lifted, and athlete\'s training status. - Strength & Power: Maximal or near-maximal loads require longer rest periods (2-5 minutes) - Hypertrophy: Needs short to moderate rest periods (30 seconds to 1.5 minutes) - Muscular Endurance: Very short rest periods (30 seconds or less) are sufficient. **Terminology** - Mechanical work = force x displacement - Load-volume is a measure of the amount of work done in resistance training. (Weight units x repetitions x sets) - Intensity is more important for strength/power, while volume is most significant for hypertrophy. **Volume Comparison** - Hypothetical example of bench press volume based on different goals: - Strength Goal: 4 sets x 4 reps, 90% of 1RM, 2880 total weight lifted - Hypertrophy Goal: 5 sets x 10 reps, 75% of 1RM, 7500 total weight lifted - Muscular Endurance Goal: 3 sets x 15 reps, 65% of 1RM, 5850 total weight lifted