Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction & Cognitive Theories PDF

Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction and Cognitive Theories  Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?  ***Motivation** has 5 schools of thought/approaches::* o **Evolutionary** Approach-- role in...

Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction and Cognitive Theories  Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do?  ***Motivation** has 5 schools of thought/approaches::* o **Evolutionary** Approach-- role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not-learned and just instinct. 137 § Ex. Think about baby, cries, sleep, eat. Basic instincts that all humans have. o **Drive Reduction Theory** / Drive Theory-- focuses on *drives vs. needs*. § **Need** is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. § That **drive** is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. *Typically basic,* *essential, and physiological* § Ex. You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water. o **Optimum Arousal Theory** -- people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high -- a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks. o **Cognitive** -- (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior. Ex. Light bulb going off in one's head. o **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs** -- we want to satisfy needs in particular order. Why we use a pyramid.  In reality, all approaches/schools of thought of motivation are related and help us learn motivation a bit better.  **Id**- innate. The reservoir of all psychic energy. The id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. It is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings. (This is called a "Drive Reduction Theory"). o **"The pleasure principle"**- To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this it uses: -*Reflex actions* (for instance sneezing) -*Primary Processes* (Forming a mental image of the desired object) - *Wish fulfillment*- The image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort.  **Ego**- "The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be.  **Superego**- The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right" o If you think about this theory, its the classic angel(super-ego) and devil (id)on the shoulder telling you what to do. It is up to you to decide (ego), but if your conscious self (ego)is weak, you\'ll end up having one of the other two take overleading to an imbalance. This is why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising the intrapsychic conflicts to the conscious level.  Motivation Terms: o The incentive theory of motivation calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior. 138 o **Extrinsic Motivation:** Extrinsic motivation is associated with rewards or obligated behavior. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to do something based on an external reward (like money or fame). o **Intrinsic Motivation:** internal motivation o **Drive-reduction motivation** is motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst. o **Amotivation** - Amotivation is the lack of motivation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs  Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. *These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottom*à *top* *order.* o Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. § ***A*cronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit** § **Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer**  1. **Physiological** -- food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. *Basic need*  2. **Safety** -- safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met. *Basic need.* o **Safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom** **from threats.**  3. **Love --** need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. *Social* *needs/Belonging*  4. **Self-esteem --**feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. *Respect.*  5. **Self-actualization** -- one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. *Maximum Potential* o *One can want to be ideal-parent, or ideal athlete or ideal-artist* 139 Incentive Theory Acronym: ILSE (incentive theory) POSTIVELY READ (positively reinforces)  **Incentive Theory -** Reward, *intangible or tangible* is presented after the occurrence of an action w/ intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. Incentive theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives. o Ex. doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). Or intangible - job satisfaction. o Ex. Incentive for football team is winning a game and getting recognition.  Studies have shown that if a reward is given immediately, chance of it happening again is higher.  If person isn't rewarded, they are less likely to do again.  Rewards must be obtainable for them to be motivating. Can't be impossible to achieve. If impossible to get, someone becomes less motivated.  **Incentive theory** focuses on **Positive reinforcement** is done through continuous positive stimulation. A positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. You need to be constantly given positive reinforces.  A **negative reinforcement -** removal of a stimuli to encourage a response would, is not what incentive theory is focussed on. (this was **drive-reduction theory**)  Skinner, most distinguished incentive theory psychologist said person will more likely do action that's positively received, and less likely to do action that is negatively received.  As children we are given incentives from parents -- incentive theory at work! Biological and Sociocultural Factors -- Food, Sex, and Drugs  Many factors that affect/ regulate our intake of *food, sex, and drugs.* 2 categories that regulate food, sex, and drugs are: **biological factors** (hormones and brain regulates each 140 drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously) **and socio-culture** (our conscious choices on how we express our needs) factors  Food (eating) o Biological: § Lateral Hypothalamus (LH, acronym: One with missing LH -- Lacks Hunger, so normal functioning LH controls that we start eating. You'd be skinny like an "L"). In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating.. § Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH, acronym: when one is missing- Very Much hungry, you'd be fat like a O in ventrOmedial), so when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. Lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) § Another hormone is insulin. Brain can detect level of insulin to see amount of sugar and fat store in blood. Too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat store. § Metabolism rate. In dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism. Makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating. § Genetic predisposition to our weight, set point influenced by parents. o Sociocultural: § We Eat for different *occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability*  Sex (sexual response) \-- o Investigated by Master & Johnson (Acronym: MJ loved Sex). They studied 100s of male and female volunteers during sexual activity. They measured the physiological indicators and they turned the results into the **Sexual response** **cycle.** o Biological: § **Sexual response cycle.**  First part of cycle is *excitement phase*, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc.  Second is *plateau.*  Then 3rd - orgasm.  4th is resolution/refractory period. 141  M&J also noted sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive). § Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by looking this by studying at homosexuality. o Sociocultural: § varied sexual response due too: *age, cultural background* (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others), *stimulus* *(*determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli), *emotions* (psychological influence), and *desires* (to procreate or not). o Hormones: § Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. § Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. § Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners.  Drugs o Biological: § Genetic: family member or family history/genetic predisposition -- then you have a higher chance of abusing the drug. § withdrawal and cravings, § biochemical factors -- imbalance in our brains § Drugs like marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like **dopamine** -- affects our limbic system.  Dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). Why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. We become in a state of euphoria -- total happiness. o If we continue to use a drug, we abuse the drug. **Reinforcing effect** -- we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs. o Socio-culturally: curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self-esteem (remember: one of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, right below self-actualization), relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in areas of higher poverty Components of Attitude  What is attitude? **Attitude** - A *learned tendency* to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects. (We think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having certain attitude towards a certain topic). 142  We can break down attitude into 3 components. These components shape our attitude. o **Affective** (emotional) -- we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject. § Ex: I am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapers our attitude about spiders. o **Behavioural** - how we act or behave towards object/subject § Ex; I will avoid (action/behavior) spiders and scream (action/behavior) if I see one. Influence our attitude. o **Cognitive** component -form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). Their cognitions. § Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous (We have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude.  Called the **ABC model of attitude**  Example 1: "I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." -- 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioural is 'I will go to class each week'  Example 2: "I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel." Affective -- 'I am frightful', behavioural is 'I will be on the carousel', and cognitive is 'I believe they are stupid' Attitudes Influence Behavior  4 theories that answer question: *how do our attitudes influence behavior.*  1. **Theory of planned behavior** o Intentions + Implications: We consider our **implications** of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these **intensions** and implications. o Intensions are based on 3 things: § Our **attitudes** towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying), § **Subjective norms** - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) § **Perceived behavioural control** (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low!  2. **Attitude to behavior process model (Attitude** à **Behavior)** o An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) o Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior. 143 o Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy because of his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is. § unhealthy attitude (trigged by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior  3. **Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)** o *Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our* *behavior. Our behavior is a function of....* § Past behavior § Attitudes -- explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude à behavior § *Subjective norms* -- what others think about our behavior § Our *intentions* -- our behavior intentions § Our *willingness* to engage in a specific type of behavior § *models/prototyping* -- a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.  4. **Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion (ELM)** o More *cognitive approach* -- focuses on the *why/how of persuasion*. o 2 ways in which information is processed: § Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! § Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!) Ex; if a drug rep comes to your medical practice and tries to convince their version of a drug. Subconsciously we will be looking at quality of arguments, if they can market drug better than another company/representative and how well they present patient risks. How engaging they are, their experience with the industry. Their knowledge of the company, how well they look. We process all these cognitively and shape our attitude towards our company and ultimately our behavior.  People strive for consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. You wouldn't hold attitude and then display a behavior that conflicts the attitude ex. You wouldn't say eating meat is immoral and then have a positive attitude towards eating hamburgers.  People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (**principle of** **aggregation**), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection. 144 Behavior Influences Attitude  Is it possible for our behaviours to shape our attitudes? Yes.  Strong social pressures can weaken attitudes to behavior connection (talked about in last video) and can cause our attitudes to follow our behavior.  1. **Foot in the door phenomenon** o We have a tendency to agree to small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions. o Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open over time. o Society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude.  2. **Role-playing** o Everyone plays many roles in life (we wear lots of hats, ex: we can be a brother/sister, a son, a student, etc). Now, picture yourself in a new role (ex: parent, new job). First few days in the role feel a bit strange/fake because we're trying to follow social quota in that role. We are trying to fit the role and sound professional. *But over time, what feels like acting starts to feel like you.* § Our behavior of playing this rule influences our attitude overtime. What feels like acting starts to feel like you and begins to fit your attitude! § Ex. Playing role as a student now becomes normal, playing role of a parent becomes normal over time. Our behavior became part of us. o Changed attitude as a result of our behavior and carrying out that role. o Ex. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment  Also **public declarations** (more likely to follow through if you've told everyone), and **justification of effort** (people do something they don't want to justify effort they put into it, such as going to med school after working so hard) o **Effort justification** is an idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from Festinger\'s theory of cognitive dissonance. **Effort justification** is people\'s tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put **effort** into acquiring or achieving.  Door in the Face Phenomenon: Cognitive Dissonance Theory  **Cognitive Dissonance:** Cognitive Dissonance is the *discomfort* experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions).  These conflicting ideas lead to feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. These conflicting ideas can be alleviated by alterations in our beliefs/behaviours. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ **CONTRADICTIONS**  4 things we do to reduce that Cognitive Discomfort. The examples to explain this concept a bit better will be one of a smoker who smokes. Ex: Smoker says "I smoke" (cognition 1) and now learns that "smoking leads to cancer" (cognition 2). In light of this new information, four things might occur: 145 o 1. **Modify our cognitions** -- Change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort a person has with that attitude/behavior. § ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. (went from "I smoke" to "I really don't smoke that much") o 2. **Trivialize** -- make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition § ex. Smoker might say, evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. o 3. **Add** -- adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable. § ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter (cognition 3). You added another cognition to deal with cognitive dissonance. o 4. **Deny --** denying the facts, § ex. Smoker might say, there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked.  Key point: People strive for harmony in our thoughts, actions, and words. As soon as our cognitions, our attitudes and behaviours don't align, we have *cognitive dissonance.*  We modify our cognitions to reduce cognitive discomfort, we don't change our behavior. o Behavioral change is not usually achieved successfully with "shock" or "scare" tactics, and they do not necessarily create dissonance. o Passive or educational strategies do not typically create dissonance. o Selective exposure would most likely refer to avoidance o reduce dissonance. o Post-decision dissonance often follows an impulsive purchase that is difficult to return. o When someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale. The dissonance then acts to make them internally justify the action, saying \'I wanted to do it anyway because I like doing that sort of thing.\' o Change vs compliance -- small rewards change cognitions, large rewards -- just compliance o Minimum Justification Principle - When someone does something and there is minimal justification for them doing it, this creates more dissonance than if they can explain it through a significant rationale. Can occur after buying something you didn't want too. o Need to introduce a new cogitation to create cognitive dissonance -- this is best done through action of the participant which affirms a second cognition. (new information would NOT do this...as a cognition needs to be developed and internalized) Situational Approach  **Situational Approach to Behavior:** We are placed in new situations every day. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology 146  **Social psychology** -- a branch of psychology that analyzes the situational approach to behavior and emphasizes influence of social phenomena and people interactions with each other on influence. It focuses on interaction between individual and the changing external environmental (situational) circumstances over internal traits/internal motivations/ stable personality traits. o Focuses on interactions between individual and their environment. o One situation is not predictive of how someone will act in another situation. Depending on situation the behavior might change.  People behave differently depending on their situation -- **externa**l instead of internal. o As human we judge person on just one instance of behavior (internal).  Hard to predict behavior based off 1 situation. Have to acknowledge we sometimes behave differently. CANT JUDGE A BOOK BY ITS COVER  **Attribution** is the process of inferring *causes of events/behaviours.* o Attribution can either internal *or external*, our focus will be on external. o Everyday, we make tons of attributions on environment, our own behavior, and those around us o Inference a person is behaving a certain way based on situation they're in. o 3 main parts of external attribution: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus § **Consistency** (does person usually behave this way), § **Distinctiveness** (does person behave differently in different situations), and § **Consensus** (do others behave similarly in situation?).  If person behaves different in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior. o If person is *consistent* in all situations, then maybe not external/environment, and more internal. Their behavior is not dependent on situation. § Ex. Situation matters. Your friend behaves differently to snakes at a zoo (where snakes are caged) than to a snake in her living room (where snake might be a danger). § If we see someone in more circumstances, we find out more about them as a person.  To determine the attribution of a behavior, one must determine if the behavior is consistent. Does the person typically behave this way? One must determine if the behavior is distinctive. Is this behavior different than it would be in other situations? Finally, one must determine if the behavior has consensus. Do others behave the same way in similar situations? 147 Theories of Personality  No theory is dominant to another or mutually exclusive. All are different ways/theories on how personality develops in people and all come from different branches of psychology and are from perspectives of different theorists/psychologists. xSituational Approach See Above Psychoanalytic Theory  **Sigmund Freud** was a neurologist and went to study hypnosis, but this turned him to medical psychopathology. Psychiatry/psychology as we knew it was unknown before his work.  **Psychoanalytic theory** -- says personality is shaped by childhood experiences person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly *experiences in* *childhood*).  Personality has memories, beliefs, urges, drives, and instincts that we are not always aware of that make up the unconscious. Says childhood experiences and **unconscious** **desires** o 2 instinctual drives motivate human behavior: § **Libido -**natural energy source -- fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure, etc. § **Death instinct** - drives aggressive behaviours fuelled by unconscious wish to die or hurt oneself/others  Individual influences on behaviour: **projection** (projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another), **reaction formation** (defence mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel), **regression** (defence mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations), **sublimation** (defence mechanism where unwanted impulses are transformed into something less harmful).  Central to his theory is **libido**. Libido is natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. o When this energy is stuck/fixated at various stages of **psychosexual** **development**, conflicts can occur that have lifelong effects. o **Fixation** at a particular stage is what predicts adult personality. o Ex. someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.  Freud said there were 3 parts of the mind: These three parts are the id, ego, and superego (ACRONYM: **I**mmature **E**ntertainer **S**ydney). They exist in either the unconscious or conscious mind. 148 o **Conscious mind**: top of iceberg is the **conscious** part of mind (small, tip of the iceberg), These are the mental functions you are aware of. o **Unconscious mind** is the bottom part of the iceberg is the larger part of the mind (most of the mind is unconscious just like most of an iceberg is beneath water). Consists of primitive, instinctual wishes and information that cannot be accessed. § Not to be confused with **Subconscious mind/precocious mind:** consists of information that becomes accessible once you direct your attention to it (memory recall for example). o Imagine an iceberg. o 1) **Id** at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands *immediate* gratification. o 2) **Ego** -- part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgements, and seeks *long-term* gratification. o 3) **Superego** -- develops around age of 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds. o Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified -- when overgratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures -- ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict. § Ex. Id is on one shoulder and it's not getting immediate gratification, then we have superego on other shoulder, preaching to id about what's moral, and ego is in middle. § Id wants gratification, and is going back and forth with superego, so ego here is trying to gratify the id but it also has to take into account what the superego is saying. It's moral oversight. § The ego is part of the conscious and unconscious mind, so it acts as mediator between the unconscious desires of the id and the moral demands of the superego. (just remember superego is also conscious and unconscious as well) § Ex. a **Freudian slip** is example of mental conflict. Ex. financially stressed patient, please don't give me any bills -- meant any pills.  Freud's stages of psychosocial development is a process all individuals go through and is a part of personality development. Especially problematic when there's a problem with development at a particular psychosocial stage. xMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs  See above Humanistic Theory  The **humanistic theory** (developed by **Carl Rogers)** focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all 149 people is the **actualizing tendency** (**self-actualization**), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself to full potential. It also says that people have **free will.** Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles. o Answers; "Who am I"  Primary difference between Freud's psychoanalytical theories is Freud's theory was deterministic -- behaviour is determined by unconscious desires.  Humanistic Theory focuses on the **conscious**, and says people are **inherently good**, and we are **self-motivated to improve** (so we can reach **self-actualization**). (Freud theory focuses on mental conflicts (fixations))  First theorist of the humanistic theory was Abraham **Maslow**, who formed hierarchy of needs. Must first fulfill physiological needs of pyramid and work our way up, then safety, then love, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization. o Self-actualization is rarely achieved, only 1% of people ever reach it. Self-aware, caring, wise, and interests are problem-centered. They have a higher purpose that is focused on larger causes and less about basic aspects of life. They are striving to think of larger causes. Average person seeks to self-actualize but we don't achieve it.  **Carl Rogers** is a humanistic theorist says qualities Maslow described are nurtured early in life, self-actualization is a constant growth process nurtured in a *growth-promoting* *climate*. In order for this climate to help someone reach self-actualization, 2 conditions that need to be met: o Growth is nurtured by when individual is **genuine.** One has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. o Second is growth is nurtured through **acceptance** -- unconditional positive regard from others. This allows us to live up to our ideal selves. Allows us to be open and learn without fear of others looking at us differently if we do something wrong. Ex. Parent might yell at child but still love their child. o Genuine relationship with others and acceptance is what allows us to *live up to* *our real self.* § **Ideal self**: we can't live up to that is bounded by conditions. o (**HUMANIST MASLOW ACTUALIZES, HUMANIST ROGERS ACCEPTS).** Humanistic Rogers genuinely believes that people can actually reach self-actualization through self-actualization.  Both Rogers + Maslow: o Central feature of our personality is **self-concept** - achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate. o When there's discrepancy between conscious values and unconscious true values leads to tension, must be resolved. o Genuine + acceptance = self-concept o Importance of **congruency** between self-concept and our actions to feel fulfilled. 150 Biological Theory  Many variations to this theory, some relate to the **brain** and some to **behaviour** (the evolutionary psychology approach) instead of traits o Ex. A dominant Psychological (behavioral) biological Theory by **Buss**: Evolutionary psychology theorizes that males + females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes. Males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy.  The **biologic theory** suggests important components of personality are **inherited**, or determined in part by our **genes**.  **Hans Eysenck** proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)-- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation.  **Jeffrey Alan Gray** (Biopsychological theory of personality) proposed personality is governed by the behavioural inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system. (acronym: 50 shades of Gray is based on punishment/rewards)  **C. Robert Cloninger** linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity. (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems -- Clone the Brain)  Researchers always try to look at identical twins, because used to tease out environmental vs. genetic characteristics -- same genetic makeup. aka: We look at identical twins because they have the same genetic makeup. We look at twins who grew up in different environments and they still had similar personalities -- similar traits. o Results show even if twins reared separately, still had similar personalities (traits) which shows strong genetic component. Some traits showed a weak genetic component (twins had different personalities when studied in different environments) o **Social potency** trait -- the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. o **Traditionalism** -- tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins. o **Weaker genetic traits** -- **achievement, closeness** o Specific genes that relate to personality, people with longer **dopamine-4** **receptor** gene are more likely to be thrill seekers. o But of course, just because you have gene doesn't mean you'll express it -- depends on environment as well. o **Temperament** -- innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life.  Important takeaway -- our inherited genes to some degree leads to our traits, which leads to our behaviour/personality.