Kep101: Introduction to Psychology PDF

Chapter 1 What is Psychology? After reading this chapter, you would be able to understand the nature and role of psychology in understanding mind and behaviour, state the growth of...

Chapter 1 What is Psychology? After reading this chapter, you would be able to understand the nature and role of psychology in understanding mind and behaviour, state the growth of the discipline, know the different fields of psychology, its relationship with other disciplines, and professions, and appreciate the value of psychology in daily life to help you understand yourself and others better. Contents Introduction What is Psychology? Psychology as a Discipline Psychology as a Natural Science Psychology as a Social Science Understanding Mind and Behaviour Popular Notions about the Discipline of Psychology Evolution of Psychology Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of Modern Psychology (Box 1.1) Development of Psychology in India Branches of Psychology Psychology and Other Disciplines Psychology in Everyday Life The growth of the human mind Key Terms Summary is still high adventure, Review Questions in many ways the highest Project Ideas adventure on earth. – Norman Cousins 2024-25  Introduction You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted for psychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked this question, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surface in class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses, like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes across such responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses like knowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beat each other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions about human nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questions relating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are people generally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if they desire happiness in their lives? Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too is intended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is largely due to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war in Iraq happened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the North- East have to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences of young men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is another side to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia, paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan, who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are not only questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a human science. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals with somewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attention in the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex after their team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychology cannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But it surely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of these phenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies in the study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available to humans for observation within themselves. psychology was a study of the soul or mind. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? But since then it has moved away considerably Any knowledge discipline is hard to define. from this focus and established itself as a Firstly, because it evolves continuously. scientific discipline which deals with processes Secondly, because the range of phenomena it underlying human experience and behaviour. studies cannot be captured by any one The range of phenomena it studies, some of definition. This is even more true of psychology. which we mentioned above, are spread over Long time back, students like yourself were told several levels, viz. individual, dyadic (two that the term psychology is derived from two person) group, and organisational. They also Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos have biological as well as social bases. meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, Naturally, therefore, the methods required to 2 Psychology 2024-25 study them also vary greatly depending on the try to understand how the mind works and to phenomenon one wants to study. A discipline help us improve the uses and applications of is defined both in terms of what it studies and these mental capacities. how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or Psychologists also study experiences of method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, people. Experiences are subjective in nature. psychology is defined formally as a science We cannot directly observe or know someone which studies mental processes, experiences else’s experience. Only the experiencing person and behaviour in different contexts. In doing can be aware or be conscious of her or his so, it uses methods of biological and social experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes in our awareness or consciousness. sense of these data so that they can be Psychologists have focused on experiences of organised as knowledge. Let us try to pain being experienced by terminally ill understand the three terms used in the patients or of psychological pain felt in definition, namely, mental processes, bereavement, besides experiences which lead experience, and behaviour. to positive feelings, such as in romantic When we say experiences are internal to encounters. There are some esoteric the experiencing person, then we refer to states experiences also which attract the attention of of consciousness or awareness or mental psychologists, such as when a Yogi meditates processes. We use our mental processes when to enter a different level of consciousness and we think or try to solve a problem, to know or creates a new kind of experience or when a remember something. One level at which these drug addict takes a particular kind of drug to mental processes are reflected is the brain get a high, even though such drugs are activity. As we think or solve a mathematical extremely harmful. Experiences are influenced problem, our brain activities can be observed by internal and the external conditions of the using different techniques of brain imaging. experiencer. If you are travelling in a crowded However, we cannot say that brain activities bus during a hot summer day, you may not and mental processes are the same, although experience the usual discomfort if you are they are interdependent. Mental activities and going for a picnic with some close friends. Thus, neural activities are mutually overlapping the nature of experience can only be understood processes but, they are not identical. Unlike by analysing a complex set of internal and the brain, the mind does not have a physical external conditions. structure or has a location. Mind emerges and Behaviours are responses or reactions we evolves as our interactions and experiences make or activities we engage in. When in this world get dynamically organised in the something is hurled at you, your eyes blink in form of a system which is responsible for the a simple reflex action. You are taking an occurrence of various mental processes. examination and can feel your heart pounding. Brain activities provide important clues as to You decide to go for a particular movie with a how our mind functions. But the friend. Behaviours may be simple or complex, consciousness of our own experiences and short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt. mental processes are much more than the They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an neural or brain activities. Even when we are observer. Some are internal or covert. When asleep some mental activities go on. We you are in a difficult situation while playing a dream, and receive some information such game of chess you almost feel your hand as a knock on the door while we are asleep. muscles twitching, trying to experiment with Some psychologists have shown that we also a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, are learn and remember in our sleep. Mental associated with or triggered by some stimulus processes, such as remembering, learning, in the environment or changes that happen knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest to internally. You may see a tiger and run or think psychologists. They study these processes to that there is a tiger and decide to flee. Some 3 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 psychologists study behaviour as an Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc. association between stimulus (S) and response degree in universities. In fact, two of the most (R). Both stimulus and response can be sought after emerging disciplines which internal or external. continuously borrow from psychology are Neuroscience and Computer Science. Some of Psychology as a Discipline us would be aware of the fast developing brain imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. which As we have discussed above, psychology make it possible to study brain processes in real studies behaviour, experience and mental time, i.e. when they are actually taking place. processes. It seeks to understand and explain Similarly, in IT areas, both human-computer how the mind works and how different mental interaction and artificial intelligence cannot processes result in different behaviours. When possibly grow without psychological knowledge we observe others as lay or common persons, in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology as a our own points of view or our ways of discipline today has two parallel streams. One understanding the world influence our which makes use of the method in physical and interpretations of their behaviours and biological sciences and the other which makes experiences. Psychologists try to minimise use of the method of social and cultural such biases in their explanations of behaviour sciences in studying various psychological and and experience in various ways. Some do so social phenomena. These streams sometimes by seeking to make their analysis scientific converge only to drift apart and go their and objective. Others seek to explain separate ways. In the first case, psychology behaviour from the point of view of the considers itself as a discipline, which focuses experiencing persons because they think that largely on biological principles to explain subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human human behaviour. It assumes that all experience. In the Indian tradition, self- behavioural phenomena have causes which can reflection and analysis of our conscious be discovered if we can collect data experiences, is held to be a major source of systematically under controlled conditions. psychological understanding. Many western Here the aim of the researcher is to know the psychologists have also begun to emphasise cause and effect relationship so that a prediction the role of self-reflection and self-knowledge of the behavioural phenomenon can be made in understanding human behaviour and and behaviour can be controlled if need be. On experience. Regardless of the differences in the the other hand, psychology as a social science way psychologists go about the study of focuses on how behavioural phenomena can be behaviour, mental processes and experiences, explained in terms of the interaction that takes they seek to understand and explain them in place between the person and the socio- a systematic and verifiable manner. cultural context of which s/he is a part. Each Psychology, though it is a very old behavioural phenomenon is assumed to have knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one multiple causes. Let us now discuss these two were to take the year of the founding of the streams separately. first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in Leipzig. However, what kind of science is Psychology as a Natural Science psychology, still remains a matter of debate, particularly because of the new interfaces of It has been mentioned earlier that psychology it that have emerged in recent times. has its roots in philosophy. However, modern Psychology is generally categorised as a social psychology has developed because of the science. But it should not come to you as a application of the scientific method to study surprise that, not only in other countries, but psychological phenomenon. Science places a in India also, it is also a subject of study offered great deal of emphasis on objectivity which in the faculty of science, both at the can be obtained if there is consensus on the undergraduate and post-graduate levels. definition of a concept and how it can be 4 Psychology 2024-25 measured. Psychology was influenced by from a farmer’s family. Her grandparents, Descartes and later on by the developments in parents and elder brother worked on their farm. physics has grown by following what is called They lived together in their house in the village. a hypothetico-deductive model. The model Ranjita was a good athlete and was the best suggests that scientific advancement can take long distance runner in the school. She loved place if you have a theory to explain a meeting people and making friends. phenomenon. For example, physicists have Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her mother what is called a Big-bang theory to explain in the same village. Her father worked in an how the universe came to be formed. Theory office in a town nearby and came home during is nothing else but a set of statements about holidays. Shabnam was a good artist and loved how a certain complex phenomenon can be staying home and taking care of her younger explained with the help of propositions which brother. She was shy and avoided meeting are interrelated. Based on a theory, scientists people. deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a Last year there was very heavy rain and tentative explanation of how a certain the river nearby overflowed into the village. phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then Many houses in the low lying areas were is tested and proved true or false based on flooded. The villagers got together and empirical data that one has gathered. The organised help and gave shelter to people in theory is revised if data gathered point in a distress. Shabnam’s house was also flooded different direction than the one suggested by and she came to live in Ranjita’s house with the hypothesis. Using the above approach her mother and brother. Ranjita was happy psychologists have developed theories of helping the family and making them feel learning, memory, attention, perception, comfortable in her house. When the flood water motivation and emotion, etc. and have made receded, Ranjita’s mother and grandmother significant progress. Till date, most of the helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up their house. research in psychology follows this approach. The two families became very close. Ranjita Apart from this, psychologists have also been and Shabnam also became very good friends. considerably influenced by the evolutionary In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, both approach which is dominant in biological are very different persons. They grew up in sciences. This approach has also been used different families under complex social and to explain diverse kinds of psychological cultural conditions. You can see some phenomenon such as attachment and regularity in the relationship of their nature, aggression to mention just a few. experience and mental processes with their social and physical environment. But at the Psychology as a Social Science same time, there are variations in their We mentioned above that psychology is behaviours and experiences which would be recognised more as a social science because dif ficult to predict using the known it studies the behaviour of human beings in psychological principles. One can understand their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not why and how individuals in communities only influenced by their socio-cultural become quite helpful and self-sacrificing in contexts, they also create them. Psychology crisis as was the case with the people in the as a social science discipline focuses on village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, even in humans as social beings. Consider the that case, not every villager was equally helpful following story of Ranjita and Shabnam. and also under similar circumstances not Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same every community is so forthcoming; in fact, class. Although, they were in the same class, sometimes, the opposite is true – people they were just acquainted with each other and become antisocial under similar their lives were quite different. Ranjita came circumstances indulging in looting and 5 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 exploitation when some crisis occurs. This relationship between the mind and the body shows that psychology deals with human and that they were parallel to each other. behaviour and experience in the context of Recent studies in affective neuroscience have their society and culture. Thus, psychology is clearly shown that there is a relationship a social science with focus on the individuals between mind and behaviour. It has been and communities in relation to their socio- shown that using positive visualisation cultural and physical environment. techniques and feeling positive emotions, one can bring about significant changes in bodily processes. Ornish has shown this in a number UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR of studies with his patients. In these studies a You will recall that psychology was once person with blocked arteries was made to defined as a science of the mind. For many visualise that blood was flowing through her/ decades, the mind remained a taboo in his blocked arteries. After practicing this over psychology because it could not be defined in a period of time, significant relief was obtained concrete behavioural terms or its location by these patients as the degree of blockage could not be indicated. If the term “mind” has became significantly less. Use of mental returned to psychology, we should thank imagery, i.e. images generated by a person in her/his mind, have been used to cure various neuroscientists like Sperry and physicists like kinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects and Penrose, who have given it the respect which situations). A new discipline called it deserved and now has. There are scientists Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which in various disciplines including psychology, emphasises the role played by the mind in who think that a unified theory of the mind is strengthening the immune system. a possibility, although it still is far away. What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It is true that mind cannot exist without brain, Activity 1.1 but mind is a separate entity. This can be Imagine and visualise yourself in the following appreciated on account of several interesting situations. Mention three psychological processes cases that have been documented. Some involved in each situation. patients whose occipital lobes, which are 1. You are writing an essay for a competition. responsible for vision, were surgically removed 2. You are chatting with a friend on an have been found to be responding correctly to interesting topic. 3. You are playing football. location and configuration of visual cues. 4. You are watching a soap opera on TV. Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his arm in 5. Your best friend has hurt you. a motorcycle accident but continued to feel 6. You are appearing in an examination. an “arm” and also continued to feel its 7. You are expecting an important visitor. movements. When of fered cof fee, his 8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your school. “phantom arm” reached out to the coffee cup 9. You are playing chess. and when someone pulled it away, he 10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a protested. There are other similar cases difficult mathematics problem. documented by neuroscientists. A young man Discuss your answers with the teacher and who suffered brain injury in an accident, after classmates. he returned home from the hospital, claimed that his parents had been replaced by their “duplicates”. They were imposters. In each of POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE these cases, the person had suffered from OF PSYCHOLOGY damage of some part of the brain but his “mind” had remained intact. It was earlier We mentioned above that everyday, almost believed by scientists that there is no everyone of us acts like a psychologist. We 6 Psychology 2024-25 try to understand why someone behaved in confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. She took the manner in which s/he did and come up two groups of students who were trained for with ready explanations. Not only this, most 25 days in solving math problems. The first of us have developed our own theory of group was given easy problems which they were human behaviour. If we want some worker always able to solve. The second group had a to perform better than s/he has in the past, mix of easy and difficult problems. Obviously, we know that we will need to push her/him. in case of difficult problems, they failed. Maybe even use a stick because people are Whenever this happened Dweck told them that basically lazy. Such popular theories of their failure was because they had not tried human behaviour based on common sense hard enough and persuaded them not to give may or may not be true if investigated up and keep trying. After the training period scientifically. In fact, you will find that was over, a new set of math problems were common sensical explanations of human given to the two groups. What Dweck found behaviour are based on hindsight and explain goes against common belief. Those who had very little. For example, if a friend you love always succeeded because they were given goes away to a distant place, what will easy problems, gave up much faster when they happen to your attraction for her/him? There faced failure than those who had experience are two sayings which you may recall to of both success and failure and were taught answer this question. One of them is “Out of to attribute failure to their lack of effort. sight, out of mind”. The second one is There are many other common sense “Distance makes the heart grow fonder”. Both notions which you may not find to be true. of them make opposite statements, so which Not too long ago it was believed in some one is true. The explanation you choose will cultures that men are more intelligent than depend on what happens in your life after women or women cause more accidents than your friend leaves. Suppose you are able to men. Empirical studies have shown that both find a new friend, the saying “Out of sight, of these are untrue. Common sense also tells out of mind” will be used by you or others to us that one is not able to give one’s best if you explain your behaviour. If you are unable to are asked to perform before a large audience. find a new friend, you will keep remembering Psychological studies have shown that if you your friend fondly. In this case, the saying have practiced well, you may actually perform “Distance makes the heart grow fonder” will better because the presence of others helps explain your behaviour. Notice that in both your performance. cases the explanation follows the occurrence It is hoped that as you go through this of behaviour. Common sense is based on textbook you will discover that many of your hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for beliefs and understanding of human behaviour patterns of behaviour which can be predicted will change. You will also gather that and not explained after the behaviour occurs. psychologists are different from astrologers, Scientific knowledge generated by tantriks and palm readers because they psychology often runs against common sense. systematically examine propositions based on One such example is a study performed by data to develop principles about human Dweck (1975). She was concerned with behaviour and other psychological phenomena. children who gave up too easily when faced with a difficult problem or failure. She Activity 1.2 wondered how they could be helped. Common sense tells us to give them easy problems in Ask a cross-section of students about what they order to increase their success rate so that think psychology is? Draw a comparison between their confidence goes up. Only later should what they say and what the textbook tells you. we give them difficult problems which they What conclusion can you draw? will be able to solve because of their new-found 7 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25  In the early 20th century, a new perspective EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY called Gestalt psychology emerged in Psychology as a modern discipline, which is Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of influenced to a large extent by Western Wundt. It focused on the organisation of developments, has a short history. It grew out perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at of ancient philosophy concer ned with the components of the mind, the Gestalt questions of psychological significance. We psychologists argued that when we look at the mentioned earlier that the formal beginning world our perceptual experience is more than of modern psychology is traced back to 1879 the sum of the components of the perception. when the first experimental laboratory was In other words, what we experience is more established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm than the inputs received from our environment. Wundt. Wundt was interested in the study of When, for example, light from a series of conscious experience and wanted to analyse flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actually the constituents or the building blocks of the experience movement of light. When we see a mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time movie, we actually have a series of rapidly analysed the structure of the mind through moving images of still pictures falling on our introspection and therefore were called retina. Thus, our perceptual experience is more structuralists. Introspection was a procedure than the elements. Experience is holistic; it is in which individuals or subjects in a Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestalt psychological experiments were asked to psychology when we discuss about the nature describe in detail, their own mental processes of perception in Chapter 5. or experiences. However, introspection as a Yet another reaction to structuralism came method did not satisfy many other in the form of behaviourism. Around 1910, psychologists. It was considered less scientific John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and because the introspective reports could not consciousness as subject matters of be verified by outside observers. This led to psychology. He was greatly influenced by the the development of new perspectives in work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on psychology. classical conditioning. For Watson, mind is not An American psychologist, William James, observable and introspection is subjective who had set up a psychological laboratory in because it cannot be verified by another Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after the observer. According to him, scientific setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed psychology must focus on what is observable what was called a functionalist approach to and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study the study of the human mind. William James of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which believed that instead of focusing on the can be measured and studied objectively. structure of the mind, psychology should Behaviourism of Watson was further developed instead study what the mind does and how by many influential psychologists who are behaviour functions in making people deal known as behaviourists. Most prominent with their environment. For example, among them was Skinner who applied functionalists focused on how behaviour behaviourism to a wide range of situations and enabled people to satisfy their needs. popularised the approach. We will discuss According to William James, consciousness Skinner’s work later in this textbook. as an ongoing stream of mental process Although behaviourists dominated the field interacting with the environment formed the of psychology for several decades after Watson, core of psychology. A very influential a number of other approaches and views about educational thinker of the time, John Dewey, psychology and its subject matter were used functionalism to argue that human developing around the same time. One person beings seek to function effectively by adapting who shook the world with his radical view of to their environment. human nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud 8 Psychology 2024-25 viewed human behaviour as a dynamic unfold their inner potential. They argued that manifestation of unconscious desires and behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a as determined by environmental conditions system to understand and cure psychological undermines human freedom and dignity and disorders. While Freudian psychoanalysis takes a mechanistic view of human nature. viewed human beings as motivated by These different approaches filled the unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure history of modern psychology and provided seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the multiple perspectives to its development. Each humanistic perspective in psychology took of these perspectives has its own focus and a more positive view of human nature. draws our attention to the complexity of Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham psychological processes. There are strengths Maslow, emphasised the free will of human as well as weaknesses in each approach. Some beings and their natural striving to grow and of these approaches have led to further Box 1.1 Some Interesting Landmarks in the E volution of Modern PPsychology Evolution sychology 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first behaviourism as a major approach to psychology laboratory in Leipzig, psychology. Germany. 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow 1890 William James publishes Principles of publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’. Psychology. 1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at 1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system Allahabad. of psychology. 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and 1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis. Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at 1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his Bangalore. work on digestive system that led to 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is understanding of principles of established. development of responses. 1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win the 1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and Nobel Prize for their work on built-in species- Simon. specific animal behaviour patterns that 1912 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany. emerge without any prior experience/ 1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta learning. University is established. 1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for work 1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science on decision-making. Congress Association. 1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the Nobel 1924 Indian Psychological Association is Prize for their research on vision cells in the founded. brain. 1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’, 1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for split- a book that led to the foundation of brain research. behaviourism. 1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India 1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee was founded. publish the first textbook on Social 1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin). established at Gurgaon, Haryana. 1949 Psychological Research Wing of the 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for Defence Science Organisation of India is research on human judgment and decision- established. making under uncertainty. 1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers 2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for his publishes Client-Centred Therapy. work in applying Game Theory to 1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and understanding of conflict and cooperation in Human Behaviour’, strengthening economic behaviour. 9 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 developments in the discipline. Aspects of departure both within the country and abroad. Gestalt approach and structuralism were These attempts have tried to establish the combined and led to the development of the truth value of various assertions in Indian cognitive perspective which focuses on how philosophical traditions through scientific we know about the world. Cognition is the studies. process of knowing. It involves thinking, The modern era of Indian psychology understanding, perceiving, memorising, began in the Department of Philosophy at problem solving and a host of other mental Calcutta University where the first syllabus processes by which our knowledge of the world of experimental psychology was introduced develops, making us able to deal with the and the first psychology laboratory was environment in specific ways. Some cognitive established in 1915. Calcutta University psychologists view the human mind as an started the first Department of Psychology in information processing system like the the year 1916 and another Department of computer. Mind, according to this view is like Applied Psychology in 1938. The beginning of a computer and it receives, processes, modern experimental psychology at Calcutta transforms, stores and retrieves information. University was greatly influenced by the Indian Modern cognitive psychology views human psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was beings as actively constructing their minds trained in USA in the experimental tradition through their exploration into the physical and of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained in the social world. This view is sometimes called Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which constructivism. Piaget’s view of child influenced the early development of development which will be discussed later is psychology in India. Professor Bose considered a constructivist theory of established Indian Psychoanalytical development of the mind. Another Russian Association in 1922. Departments of psychologist Vygotsky went even further to Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and suggest that the human mind develops Patna were other early centres of teaching and through social and cultural processes in which research in psychology. From these modest the mind is viewed as culturally constructed beginnings, modern psychology has grown as through joint interaction between adults and a strong discipline in India with a large number children. In other words, while for Piaget of centres of teaching, research and children actively construct their own minds, applications. There are two centers of Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint excellence in psychology supported by the cultural construction and emerges as a result UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and of interaction between children and adults. at the University of Allahabad. About 70 universities offer courses in psychology. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology in a Third World Country: The Indian The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in Experience published in 1986 traces the its focus on mental processes and reflections history of modern psychology as a social on human consciousness, self, mind-body science in India in four phases. According to relations, and a variety of mental functions him, the first phase till independence was a such as cognition, perception, illusion, phase with emphasis on experimental, attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately, psychoanalytic and psychological testing philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have research, which primarily reflected the not influenced the development of modern development of the discipline in western psychology in India. The development of the countries. The second phase till the 1960s was discipline in India continues to be dominated a phase of expansion of psychology in India by wester n psychology, although some into different branches of psychology. During attempts have been made to find points of this phase Indian psychologists showed a 10 Psychology 2024-25 desire to have an Indian identity by seeking to BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY link western psychology to the Indian context. They did this by using western ideas to Various fields of specialisation in psychology understand the Indian situation. However, have emerged over the years. Some of these psychology in India sought to become relevant are discussed in this section. for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of problem-oriented research. Psychologists Cognitive Psychology investigates mental became more focused on addressing the processes involved in acquisition, storage, problems of the Indian society. Further, the manipulation, and transfor mation of limitations of excessive dependence on information received from the environment western psychology for our social context were along with its use and communication. The also realised. Leading psychologists major cognitive processes are attention, emphasised the significance of research, which perception, memory, reasoning, problem is of relevance to our situation. The search for solving, decision-making and language. You a new identity of psychology in India led to will be studying these topics later in this the phase of indigenisation, which started textbook. In order to study these cognitive during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the processes, psychologists conduct experiments western framework, Indian psychologists in laboratory settings. Some of them also follow stressed the need for developing an an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which understanding based on a framework, which focuses on the environmental factors, to study was culturally and socially relevant. This trend cognitive processes in a natural setting. was also reflected in some attempts to develop Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with psychological approaches based on traditional neuroscientists and computer scientists. Indian psychology, which came from our Biological Psychology focuses on the ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phase relationship between behaviour and the is characterised by development in indigenous physical system, including the brain and the psychology, which originated from the Indian rest of the nervous system, the immune cultural context and was relevant for society system, and genetics. Biological psychologists and Indian psychology based on the Indian often collaborate with neuroscientists, traditional knowledge system. While these zoologists, and anthropologists. developments continue, psychology in India Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of is making significant contributions to the field research where psychologists and of psychology in the world. It has become more neuroscientists are working together. contextual emphasising the need for Researchers are studying the role of developing psychological principles, which are neurotransmitters or chemical substances rooted in our own social and cultural context. which are responsible for neural Alongside, we also find that new research communication in different areas of the brain studies involving interfaces with neuro- and therefore in associated mental functions. biological and health sciences are being carried They do their research on people with normal out. functioning brain as well as on people with Psychology in India is now being applied damaged brain by following advanced in diverse professional areas. Not only have technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc. psychologists been working with children about which you will study later. having special problems, they are employed in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in Developmental Psychology studies the corporate organisations in the HRD and physical, social and psychological changes advertising departments, in sports that occur at different ages and stages over a directorates, in the development sector and life-span, from conception to old age. The in IT industry. primary concer n of developmental 11 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 psychologists is how we become what we are. Health Psychology focuses on the role of For many years the major emphasis was on psychological factors (for example, stress, child and adolescent development. However anxiety) in the development, prevention and today an increasing number of developmental treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a psychologists show strong interest in adult health psychologist are stress and coping, the development and ageing. They focus on the relationship between psychological factors and biological, socio-cultural and environmental health, patient-doctor relationship and ways factors that influence psychological of promoting health enhancing factors. characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals emotion, temperament, morality, and social with causes, treatment and prevention of relationship. Developmental psychologists different types of psychological disorders such collaborate with anthropologists, as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and educationists, neurologists, social workers, chronic substance abuse. A related area is counsellors and almost every branch of counselling, which aims to improve everyday knowledge where there is a concern for growth functioning by helping people solve problems and development of a human being. in daily living and cope more effectively with Social Psychology explores how people are challenging situations. The work of clinical psychologists does not differ from that of affected by their social environments, how counselling psychologists although a people think about and influence others. counselling psychologist sometimes deals with Social psychologists are interested in such people who have less serious problems. In topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience many instances, counselling psychologists to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful work with students, advising them about behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social personal problems and career planning. Like motivation, inter-group relations and so on. clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology the causes, treatment, and prevention of examines the role of culture in understanding psychological disorders. How are clinical behaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumes psychologists and psychiatrists different? A that human behaviour is not only a reflection clinical psychologist has a degree in psychology, which includes intensive training of human-biological potential but also a in treating people with psychological disorders. product of culture. Therefore behaviour should In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree be studied in its socio-cultural context. As you with years of specialised training in the will be studying in different chapters of this treatment of psychological disorders. One book, culture influences human behaviour in important distinction is that psychiatrists can many ways and in varying degrees. prescribe medications and give electroshock Environmental Psychology studies the treatments whereas clinical psychologist interaction of physical factors such as cannot. temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals disasters on human behaviour. The influence with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the of physical arrangement of the workplace on workers and the organisations that employ health, the emotional state, and interpersonal them. Industrial/organisational psychologists relations are also investigated. Current topics are concerned with training employees, of research in this field are the extent to which, improving work conditions, and developing disposal of waste, population explosion, criteria for selecting employees. For example, conservation of energy, efficient use of an organisational psychologist might community resources are associated with and recommend that a company may adopt a new are functions of human behaviour. management structure that would increase 12 Psychology 2024-25 communication between managers and staff. psychology, forensic psychology, rural The background of industrial and psychology, engineering psychology, organisational psychologists often includes managerial psychology, community training in cognitive and social psychology. psychology, psychology of women, and political psychology, to name a few. Try the Activity 1.3 Educational Psychology studies how people to reflect upon your interest areas in psychology. of all ages learn. Educational psychologists primarily help develop instructional methods PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES and materials used to train people in both educational and work settings. They are also Any discipline, which deals with people, would concerned with research on issues of relevance definitely recognise the relevance of the for education, counselling and learning knowledge of psychology. Similarly problems. A related field, school psychology, psychologists also acknowledge the relevance focuses on designing programmes that of other disciplines in understanding human promote intellectual, social, and emotional behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence development of children, including those with of interdisciplinary approach in the field of special needs. They try to apply knowledge of psychology. Researchers and scholars in psychology in a school setting. science, social science and humanities have felt the significance of psychology as a discipline. Sports Psychology applies psychological Figure 1.1 clearly shows the relationship of principles to improve sports performance by psychology with other disciplines. In studying enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology brain and behaviour, psychology shares its is a relatively new field but is gaining acceptance worldwide. knowledge with neurology, physiology, biology, medicine and computer science. In Other Emerging Branches of Psychology : studying human behaviour (its meaning, The interdisciplinary focus on research and growth and development) in a socio-cultural application of psychology has led to the context, psychology shares its knowledge with emergence of varied areas like aviation anthropology, sociology, social work, political psychology, space psychology, military science and economics. In studying mental activities involved in creation of literary texts, music and drama, psychology shares its Activity 1.3 knowledge with literature, art and music. Some Think about the areas of psychology that you have of the major disciplines linked to the field of read in the text. Go through the list given below psychology are discussed below: and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11 (least interesting). Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century, Cognitive psychology certain concerns that are now part of Biological psychology contemporary psychology like, what is the Developmental psychology nature of the mind or how do humans come to Social psychology Cross-cultural and cultural psychology know their motivations and emotions were the Environmental psychology concerns of philosophers. In the later part of Health psychology the 19th century, Wundt and other Clinical and counselling psychology psychologists adopted an experimental Industrial/Organisational psychology approach to these questions and contemporary Educational psychology Sports psychology psychology emerged. Despite the emergence of psychology as a science, it greatly draws from After going through this textbook and completing the course you may like to return to this activity philosophy, particularly with respect to and mark the changes in your ranking. methods of knowing, and various domains of human nature. 13 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 Medicine : Doctors have realised that the terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, memory organised, sequential and is actually true. A large number of hospitals simultaneous (read parallel) processing of now employ psychologists. The role of information. Computer scientists and psychologists in preventing people from engineers are seeking to make computers not engaging in health hazardous behaviours and only more and more intelligent but also in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen machines which can sense and feel. are some of the important areas where the two Developments in both these disciplines have disciplines have come together. While treating brought about significant advancement in the patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the field of cognitive sciences. physically challenged, or handling patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and patients during Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and post operative care doctors have also felt the a criminologist requires knowledge of need for psychological counselling. A psychology in answering such questions as: successful doctor looks at the psychological How well a witness remembers an accident, a street fight, or a murder? How well can s/he as well as physical well-being of the patients. report such facts when taking the witness Economics, Political Science and stand in the court? What factors influence the decision which is taken by the jury? What are Sociology : As sister social science disciplines, the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood? these three have drawn considerably from What factors are held important in holding a psychology and have enriched it as well. culprit responsible for her/his action? What Psychology has contributed a great deal to the degree of punishment is considered just for a study of micro-level economic behaviour, criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer particularly in understanding consumer these questions. Currently, a number of behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision- psychologists are involved in research on such making. American economists have used data issues, the answers to which would help the on consumer sentiments to predict economic legal system of the country in the future. growth. Three scholars who have worked on such problems have received the Nobel Prize Mass Communication : The print and the in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman electronic media have entered in our lives in a and T. Schelling. Like economics, political very big way. They have a major influence on science too draws considerably from our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If psychology, particularly, in understanding they have brought us closer together, they issues related to exercise of power and have also reduced cultural diversities. The authority, nature of political conflicts and their impact of media on the formation of attitudes resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology of children and their behaviour is a domain and psychology come together to explain and where both these disciplines come together. understand the behaviour of individuals within Psychology also helps in developing strategies different socio-cultural contexts. Issues related for better and effective communication. A to socialisation, group and collective behaviour, journalist in reporting news must know the and intergroup conflicts gain from both these reader’s interests in the story. Since most stories disciplines. deal with human events, knowledge of their motives and emotions is very important. A story Computer Science : From the very beginning, will have more impact if it is based on a the effort of computer science has been in background of psychological knowledge and mimicking the human mind. One can see it in insight. 14 Psychology 2024-25  Political Science Education Economics Philosophy Music and Fine Arts Psychology Computer Science Law/Criminology Medicine/Psychiatry Mass Communication Architecture and Engineering Sociology Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines 15 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25 Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology social reforms, interventions at the individual have converged in many areas. Scientists have levels are also needed in order to change. Many made use of music in raising work of these problems are largely of psychological performance. Music and emotions is another nature and they result from our unhealthy area in which a number of studies have been thinking, negative attitude towards people and carried out. Musicians in India have recently self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A started experimenting with what they call psychological analysis of these problems helps ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different both in having a deeper understanding of these ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. problems and also in finding their effective The efficacy of music therapy still remains to solutions. be proven. The potential of psychology in solving the problems of life is being realised more and Architecture and Engineering : At first glance more. Media has played a vital role in this the relationship between psychology and respect. You may have seen on television architecture and engineering would appear counsellors and therapists suggesting improbable. But such is actually not the case. solutions to a variety of problems related to Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his children, adolescents, adults and the elderly clients by providing mental and physical space people. You may also find them analysing vital through her design and satisfy aesthetically. social problems relating to social change and Engineers must also take into account human development, population, poverty, habits in their plans for safety, for example, interpersonal or intergroup violence, and on streets and highways. Psychological environmental degradation. Many knowledge helps in a big way in designing of psychologists now play an active role in all mechanical devices and displays. designing and executing intervention To sum up, psychology is located at the programmes in order to provide people with a intersection of many fields of knowledge better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise pertaining to human functioning. that we find psychologists working in diverse settings such as schools, hospitals, industries, PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE prisons, business organisations, military establishments, and in private practice as The discussion above may have clarified that consultants helping people solve problems in psychology is not only a subject that satisfies their respective settings. some of the curiosities of our mind about Besides helping you in rendering social human nature, but it is also a subject that service to others, the knowledge of psychology can offer solutions to a variety of problems. is also personally relevant to you in your day- These may range from purely personal (for to-day life. The principles and methods of example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic psychology that you will learn in this course father or a mother dealing with a problem child) should be made use of in analysing and to those that may be rooted within the family understanding yourself in relation to others. set up (for example, lack of communication and It is not that we do not think about ourselves. interaction among family members) or in a But very often, some of us think very highly larger group or community setting (for example, of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts terrorist groups or socially isolated our opinion about ourselves is rejected communities) or may have national or because we engage in what is called a international dimensions. Problems related to defensive behaviour. In some other cases, education, health, environment, social justice, persons come to acquire a habit of running women development, intergroup relations, etc. down themselves. Both conditions do not are pervasive. While the solution of these permit us to grow. We need to have a positive problems may involve political, economic and and balanced understanding of ourselves. You 16 Psychology 2024-25 may use psychological principles in a positive manner to develop good habits of study for improving your learning and memory, and for Key Terms solving your personal and interpersonal Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, problems by using appropriate decision- Cognitive approach, Consciousness, making strategies. You will also find it of use Constructivism, Developmental psychology, to reduce or alleviate the stress of Functionalism, Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, examination. Thus, the knowledge of Humanistic approach, Introspection, Mind, psychology is quite useful in our everyday life, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus, and is rewarding from personal as well as Structuralism social points of view. Summary Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as a natural as well as a social science. The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism, Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology. Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches or diverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are not mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of human functioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychological functions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desire to grow, be productive and fulfill human potential. Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories and methods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains. Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology, health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and school psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/ organisational psychology, sports psychology. More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a better understanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests of psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology), biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music and fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application. Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoretical knowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at different levels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settings including schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and government establishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants. Review Questions 1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour. 2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology? 3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology. 17 Chapter 1 What is Psychology? 2024-25  4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain. 5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist. 6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice. 7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote environment friendly behaviour? 8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of the psychologists working in this field. Project Ideas 1. This chapter tells you about several professionals in the field of psychology. Contact a psychologist who fits into one of the categories and interview the person. Have a list of questions prepared beforehand. Possible questions could be: (i) What kind of education is necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which college/university would you recommend for the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many jobs available today in your area of work? (iv) What would a typical day at work be like for you – or is there no such thing as “typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this line of work? Write a report of your interview and include your specific reactions. 2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books (fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to applications of psychology. Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis. 18 Psychology 2024-25